TABLE 1.
Characteristics of the general population in the included studies1
| Source | Participants | Age | Men | Duration of follow-up | Exposure assessment | Exposure categories | No. of incidents | Case identification methods | Adjusted variables |
| n | y | % | y | ||||||
| Type 2 diabetes | |||||||||
| Vang et al, 2008 (51), AMS and AHS, USA | 8401 | 45–88 | 61.1 | 17.0 | Semiquantitative questionnaire | 0, 1/wk, ≥1/wk | 543 diabetes | Self-administered questionnaires | Age and sex |
| Djousse et al, 2009 (37), PHS I, USA | 20,703 | 40–86 | 100 | 20.0 | Self-administered questionnaire | 0, <1/wk, | 1921 diabetes | Physician's self-reported | Age, BMI, smoking, alcohol consumption, vigorous exercise, and history of hypercholesterolemia and hypertension |
| 1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥7/wk | |||||||||
| Djousse et al, 2009 (37), WHS, USA | 36,295 | 39–90 | 0 | 11.7 | Self-administered questionnaire | 0, | 2112 diabetes | Self-reported diabetes was confirmed by telephone interviews, supplemental questionnaire, or review of medical records | Age, BMI, smoking, alcohol consumption, exercise, red meat intake, quintiles of energy intake, fruit and vegetables, SFAs, trans fatty acids, PUFAs, family history of diabetes, and history of hypercholesterolemia and hypertension |
| <1/wk, | |||||||||
| 1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥7/wk | |||||||||
| Djousse et al, 2010 (41), CHS, USA | 1669 | 65–95 | 100 | 11.3 | Picture-sort questionnaire | Never, | 142 diabetes | Diagnosed by clinical examination according to ADA 2010 criteria | Age, race, BMI, smoking status, alcohol consumption, physical activity, cereal-fiber intake, and field center |
| <1/mo, | |||||||||
| 1–3/mo, | |||||||||
| 1–4/wk, | |||||||||
| almost daily | |||||||||
| Djousse et al, 2010 (41), CHS, USA | 2229 | 65–98 | 0 | 11.3 | Picture-sort questionnaire | Never, | 171 diabetes | Diagnosed by clinical examination according to ADA 2010 criteria | Age, race, BMI, smoking status, alcohol consumption, physical activity, cereal-fiber intake, and field center |
| <1/mo, 1–3/mo, 1–4/wk, almost daily | |||||||||
| Cardiovascular disease | |||||||||
| Hu et al, 1999 (30), HPFS, USA2 | 37,851 | 40–75 | 100 | 7.2 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 866 CHD, | Review medical record | Age, BMI, 2-y time periods, cigarette smoking, parental history of myocardial infarction, multivitamin supplement use, vitamin E supplement use, alcohol consumption, history of hypertension, physical activity, and total energy intake |
| 1/wk, | 258 stroke | ||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥1/d | |||||||||
| Hu et al, 1999 (30), NHS, USA | 80,082 | 34–59 | 0 | 13.2 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 939 CHD, | Review medical record | Age, BMI, 2-y time periods, cigarette smoking, parental history of myocardial infarction, multivitamin supplement use, vitamin E supplement use, alcohol consumption, menopausal status and postmenopausal hormone use, history of hypertension, physical activity, and total energy intake |
| 1/wk, | 563 stroke | ||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥1/d | |||||||||
| He et al, 2003 (31), HPFS, USA2 | 43,732 | 40–75 | 100 | 14.0 | Semi-quantitative questionnaire | <1/wk, | 455 ischemic stroke, 125 hemorrhagic stroke | Medical record | Age, BMI, physical activity, history of hypertension, smoking status, aspirin use, multivitamin use, total servings of fruit and vegetables, total energy intake, hypercholesterolemia, and consumption of alcohol, potassium, fiber, and vitamin E |
| 1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥1/d | |||||||||
| Nakamura et al, 2006 (32), JPHCPS, Japan | Total: 90,735; cohort I: 41,234; cohort II: 49,471 | I: 40–59; II: 40–69 | I: 48.2;II: 47.4 | 10.2 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1 d/wk, | 462 CHD | Medical record | Age, sex, BMI, hypertension, diabetes, use of cholesterol-lowering drugs, smoking, alcohol, intention to avoid cholesterol-rich diets, cohort effects, and consumption frequencies of meat, fish, vegetables, and fruit |
| 1–2 d/wk, | |||||||||
| 3–4 d/wk, | |||||||||
| almost daily | |||||||||
| Qureshi et al, 2007 (33), NHANES I, USA | 9734 | 25–74 | 38.6 | 16.6 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 655 total stroke, | Registry | Age, sex, race-ethnicity, systolic BP, DM, serum cholesterol, cigarette smoking, BMI, and education status |
| 1–6/wk, | 591 ischemic stroke | ||||||||
| ≥7/wk | (ICD-9-CM codes 430, 431–434.9, or 437.0–437.1); | ||||||||
| 1584 CAD (ICD-9-CM codes 410–414) | |||||||||
| Djousse and Gaziano, 2008 (34), PHS, USA | 21,327 | 40–86 | 100 | 20.0 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 1550 new MI, | Questionnaire | Age, BMI, smoking, history of hypertension, vitamin intake, alcohol consumption, vegetable consumption, breakfast cereal, physical activity, treatment arm a-fib, DM, hypercholesterolemia, and parental history of premature MI |
| 1/wk, | 1342 total stroke | ||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥7/wk | |||||||||
| Houston et al, 2011 (35), Health ABC Study, USA | 1600 | 70–79 | 44.5 | 9.0 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 158 CVD | Annual clinical examination and medical record | Age, sex, race, education, field center, smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, BMI, total energy intake, protein intake, fiber intake, multivitamin use, supplemental vitamin E use, statin use, aspirin use, oral estrogen use (women), prevalent hypertension, and SFAs |
| 1–2/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥3/wk | |||||||||
| Zazpe et al, 2011 (36), SUN Project, Spain | 14,185 | 20–90 | 40.9 | 5.8 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 91 CVD | Self-reported questionnaire and medical record | Age, sex, total energy intake, adherence to the Mediterranean food pattern, alcohol intake, BMI, smoking status, physical activity, family history of CVD, diabetes, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia |
| 1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| >4/wk | |||||||||
| Yaemsiri et al, 2012 (44), WHI-OS, USA | 87,025 | 50–79 | 0 | 7.6 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 1049 ischemic stroke | Self-report and medical record | Age, race, education, family income, years as a regular smoker, hormone replacement therapy use, physical activity, alcohol intake, aspirin use, use of antihypertensive medication and cholesterol-lowering medication, BMI, systolic BP, total energy intake, dietary vitamin E, intake of fruit and vegetables and fiber, and history of CHD, a-fib, and diabetes |
| 1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥1/d | |||||||||
| Mortality | |||||||||
| Mann et al, 1997 (46), UK | 10,802 | 16–79 | 38.0 | 13.3 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 64 IHD death | Registry | Age, sex, smoking, and social class |
| 392 all-cause death | 1–5/wk, | ||||||||
| ≥6/wk | |||||||||
| Sauvaget et al, 2003 (47), LSS, Japan | 37,130 | 34–103 | 38.3 | 16.0 | Self-administered questionnaire | Never, | 1462 stroke death | Registry | HR stratified by sex and birth cohort and adjusted for city, radiation dose, BMI, smoking status, alcohol habits, education level, history of diabetes, or hypertension |
| ≤1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| almost daily | |||||||||
| Nakamura et al, 2004 (43), NIPPON DATA80, Japan | 4077 | Mean | 100 | 13.0 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 39 IHD death, | Registry | Age, serum creatinine, total cholesterol, blood glucose, BMI, systolic and diastolic BP, use of BP-lowering drugs, cigarette smoking, and alcohol intake |
| 50.3 (>30) | 1–2/wk, 0.5/d, | 112 stroke death, | |||||||
| 1/d | 640 all-cause death | ||||||||
| Nakamura et al, 2004 (43), NIPPON DATA80, Japan | 5186 | Mean 50.7 (>30) | 0 | 13.3 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 41 IHD death, | Registry | Age, serum creatinine, total cholesterol, blood glucose, BMI, systolic and diastolic BP, use of BP-lowering drugs, cigarette smoking, and alcohol intake |
| 1–2/wk, | 107 stroke death, | ||||||||
| 0.5/d, | 562 all-cause death | ||||||||
| 1/d | |||||||||
| Qureshi et al, 2007 (33), NHANES-I, USA | 9734 | 25–74 | 38.6 | 16.6 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 3117 all-cause death | Registry | Age, sex, race-ethnicity, systolic BP, DM, serum cholesterol, cigarette smoking, BMI, and education status |
| 1–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥7/wk | |||||||||
| Djousse and Gaziano, 2008 (34), PHS, USA | 21,327 | 40–86 | 100 | 20.0 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 5169 all-cause death | Self or family-reported questionnaire | Age, BMI, smoking, history of hypertension, vitamin intake, alcohol consumption, vegetable consumption, breakfast cereal, physical activity, treatment arm a-fib, DM, hypercholesterolemia, and parental history of premature MI |
| 1/wk, | |||||||||
| 2–4/wk, | |||||||||
| 5–6/wk, | |||||||||
| ≥7/wk | |||||||||
| Scrafford et al, 2010 (50), NHANES III, USA | 6833 | >17 | 100 | 8.8 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 198 CHD death | Registry | Age, energy, marital status, education status, race-ethnicity, BMI, diabetes, hypertension, and alcohol intake |
| 1–6/wk, | (ICD-10 codes I20–I25), 63 stroke death (ICD-10 codes I60–I69) | ||||||||
| ≥7/wk | |||||||||
| Scrafford et al, 2010 (50), NHANES III, USA | 8113 | >17 | 0 | 8.9 | Self-administered questionnaire | <1/wk, | 168 CHD death, | Registry | Age, energy, marital status, education status, race-ethnicity, BMI, diabetes, hypertension, and alcohol intake |
| 1–6/wk, | 74 stroke death | ||||||||
| ≥7/wk |
1
ADA, American Diabetes Association; a-fib, atrial fibrillation; AMS and AHS, Adventist Mortality Study and Adventist Health Study; BP, blood pressure; CAD, coronary artery disease; CHD, coronary heart disease; CHS, Cardiovascular Health Study; CVD, cardiovascular disease; DM, diabetes mellitus; Health ABC, Health, Aging and Body Composition; HPFS, Health Professionals Follow-Up Study; ICD, International Classification of Diseases; IHD, ischemic heart disease; JPHCPS, Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study; LSS, the Life Span Study; MI, myocardial infarction; NHS, Nurses’ Health Study; NIPPON DATA80, National Integrated Project for prospective Observation of Non-communicable Disease and Its Trends In the Aged, 1980; PHS, Physicians’ Health Study; WHI-OS, Women's Health Initiative Observational Study; WHS, Women's Health Study.
2
Two cohort studies have the outcomes for stroke from the same cohort, HPFS.