Table 2.

Effects of Head Start compared to any other care arrangements

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Parenting
Low parental warmth	1.55** (3.76)	1.24+ (1.78)	0.93 (−0.27)
Parental harshness	1.67** (3.56)	1.43* (2.06)	1.28 (1.10)
Child’s low access to learning	0.93 (−0.48)	0.70** (−2.72)	0.40** (−3.31)
Child Maltreatment
Spanking	1.20 (1.06)	1.13 (1.00)	0.71** (−2.75)
Other physical assault	1.42* (2.10)	1.20 (1.04)	0.89 (−0.59)
Neglect	1.53** (4.98)	1.29* (2.56)	0.86 (−0.83)
CPS contact	1.23 (0.80)	1.11 (0.43)	0.66 (−1.40)

Notes: The outcome variables were dichotomized with a value of “1” or “0.” The “low” category (i.e., with a value of “1”) of parental warmth and child’s access to learning was defined as scores lower than one standard deviation below the mean; for physical assault, the “yes” category (i.e., with a value of “1”) referred to scores higher than one standard deviation above the mean; and parental harshness, neglect, spanking, and CPS contact were coded as “1” if parents conducted any activities on items included in the measures. Model 1 included city fixed effects; child demographics and mother and family covariates were added in Model 2; Model 3 used propensity score matching. The sample sizes were 2,807 for Models 1 and 2, and 764 for Model 3. Odd ratios with z-statistics (clustered at city level) in parentheses

^**p<0.01

^*p<0.05

⁺p<0.10