Table 2.

Human exposure to mycotoxins: results and characteristics of pilot studies conducted using the novel LC-MS/MS multibiomarker methods

Country	No. of subjects	Individuals investigated	No of positive samples (%)	Analytes detected	Co-exposure in a single individuala	References
Korea	12	11 adults, 1 child	12 (100 %)	AFM1, OTA	AFM1–OTA	Ahn et al. [17]
Spain	27	Adults	Not stated	AFG2, OTA, DON	Not stated	Rubert et al. [18]
Italy	10	Adults	10 (100 %)	OTA, DON	OTA–DON	Solfrizzo et al. [19]
Austria	27	Adults	26 (96 %)	DON, DON-3-GlcA, DON-15-GlcA	DON–DON-3-GlcA–DON-15-GlcA	Warth et al. [23]
Cameroon	175	145 HIV-positive adults	110 (63 %)	AFM1, OTA, FB1, FB2, DON, DON-3-GlcA, DON-15-GlcA, NIV, ZEN, ZEN-14-GlcA, α-ZEL	AFM1–OTA–FB1–DON–DON-15-GlcA–NIV	Warth et al. [16]
		30 HIV-negative adults
Belgium	40	Adults	9 (23 %)	DON, OTA, OTα, 4-OH-OTA, ZEN, CIT, β-ZEL	OTA–OTα–DON–ZEN–β-ZEL	Njumbe Ediage et al. [25]
South Africa	53	Adult women	53 (100 %)	OTA, FB1, DON, DON-3-GlcA, DON-15-GlcA, NIV, ZEN, ZEN-14-GlcA, α-ZEL, β-ZEL	OTA–FB1–DON–DON-3-GlcA–DON-15-GlcA–ZEN–ZEN-14-GlcA–α-ZEL–β-ZEL	Shephard et al. [38] and unpublished results

^aOnly the most severe co-contamination is reported