TABLE II.

Sensors and Actuators for HoC/OoCs

Parameters that can be measured (sensors)
Morphology: size, shape, optical density, motility, division, organelle configuration, non-translational motion, nuclear shape
Force: shear, tension, deformation
Intracellular signaling (optical, MALDI-IM-MS): GFP/luciferase reporters, [Ca]I, pHi, Vm, MMP, GFP, GFP-FRET
Extracellular electrolytes (electrochemical): [Na]e, [Ca]e, [K]e, [Mg]e, [PO4]e, [Cl]e, [HCO3]e
Neurotransmitters (electrochemical): serotonin, acetylcholine, GAB A, …
Extracellular metabolites (electrochemical): [glucose](t), [lactate](t), [pH](t), [O2](t), [NO](t), [H2O2](t),…
Extracellular metabolites (GC/UPLC-IM-MS): amino acids, carbohydrates, small metabolites, stable isotopic markers
Surface expression: specific affinity probes (dyes, Q-dots)
Soluble gene expression (Luminex, nESI-IM-MS): cytokines, growth factors, hormones, enzymes
Cytosolic proteins and membrane lipids (GFPs, MALDI-IM-MS)
Gene expression (mRNA arrays, RT-PCR)
Parameters that can be controlled (actuators)
Base formulation of universal perfusion medium (blood surrogate)
[glucose](t), [lactate](t), amino acids (~15), cytokines (N»1), growth factors (N»1), hormones (N»1), toxins and drugs (N»1)
[Na]e(t), [Ca]e(t), [K]e(t), [Mg]e(t), pH(t), [O2](t), [PO4]e(t)
Mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal, genetic (siRNA, optogenetic).