Table 2.
Multilevel regression results of the associations of individual-level factors, neighbourhood poverty and neighbourhood food environment with distance to grocery shop (miles)
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable† | Estimate | se | P | Estimate | se | P | Estimate | se | P |
| Individual | |||||||||
| Age | −0·02 | 0·01 | * | −0·02 | 0·01 | * | −0·01 | 0·01 | |
| Gender (Ref: Male) | |||||||||
| Female | 0·81 | 0·24 | * | 0·83 | 0·25 | ** | 0·76 | 0·24 | ** |
| Race/ethnicity (Ref: African-American)‡ | |||||||||
| Latino | −0·74 | 0·35 | * | −0·59 | 0·48 | −0·30 | 0·47 | ||
| White | 0·11 | 0·35 | 0·15 | 0·37 | 0·16 | 0·38 | |||
| Marital status (Ref: Not currently married) | |||||||||
| Currently married | 0·01 | 0·28 | <0·01 | 0·29 | 0·06 | 0·27 | |||
| Education (Ref: <High school or GED diploma) | |||||||||
| High-school graduate or GED diploma | 0·07 | 0·29 | 0·13 | 0·30 | 0·10 | 0·30 | |||
| >High school | 1·02 | 0·32 | * | 1·11 | 0·33 | ** | 0·87 | 0·31 | * |
| Employment (Ref: Not currently employed) | |||||||||
| Currently employed | −0·21 | 0·29 | −0·22 | 0·28 | −0·06 | 0·30 | |||
| Annual household income per capita (Ref: <$US 4500) | |||||||||
| $US 4500–7499 | −0·03 | 0·25 | 0·05 | 0·25 | −0·14 | 0·26 | |||
| $US 7500–16 200 | 0·71 | 0·27 | ** | 0·73 | 0·28 | ** | 0·72 | 0·28 | ** |
| >$US 16 200 | 0·67 | 0·46 | 0·73 | 0·46 | 0·59 | 0·42 | |||
| Automobile ownership (Ref: No) | |||||||||
| Owns automobile | 1·11 | 0·28 | *** | 1·17 | 0·28 | *** | 1·08 | 0·27 | *** |
| Home ownership (Ref: No) | |||||||||
| Owns home | −0·29 | 0·29 | −0·34 | 0·29 | −0·17 | 0·28 | |||
| Length of residence in Detroit | 0·02 | 0·01 | * | 0·02 | 0·01 | * | 0·02 | 0·01 | * |
| Satisfaction with the neighbourhood food environment | −1·08 | 0·14 | *** | ||||||
| Neighbourhood/census block | |||||||||
| Large grocery store | −0·72 | 0·23 | ** | −0·70 | 0·21 | ** | |||
| Small grocery store | −0·28 | 0·26 | −0·18 | 0·24 | |||||
| Convenience store | 0·22 | 0·24 | 0·25 | 0·23 | |||||
| Specialty store | −0·14 | 0·28 | −0·05 | 0·26 | |||||
| Liquor store, number | −0·05 | 0·05 | −0·04 | 0·05 | |||||
| Supermarket, distance to nearest (miles) | 0·39 | 0·19 | * | 0·21 | 0·16 | ||||
| Neighbourhood/census block group | |||||||||
| Racial/ethnic composition (Ref: Other) | |||||||||
| Predominantly African-American | −0·08 | 0·33 | 0·02 | 0·38 | −0·22 | 0·35 | |||
| Poverty level (Ref: Low poverty) | |||||||||
| Moderately poor | 0·71 | 0·34 | * | 0·75 | 0·25 | ** | 0·88 | 0·21 | *** |
| High poverty | 0·98 | 0·48 | * | 0·85 | 0·42 | * | 0·88 | 0·38 | * |
Ref., reference category; GED, General Educational Development.
1 mile = 1·61 km.
*P < 0·05, **P < 0·01, ***P < 0·001.
†All individual-level variables are grand-mean centred. Number of liquor stores and distance to the nearest supermarket at the census block level are also grand-mean centred.
‡Other race/ethnicity not shown due to small sample size.