Table 2.
Main characteristics of reviewed studies from before September 2012 assessing outdoor SHS exposure in non-hospitality settings.
| Reference, location | Study design: venue type, and sample size | SHS marker | Potential confounders | SHS marker concentration | Background concentration (control) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Presenceofsmokers | Absenceofsmokers | |||||
| CARB 2005, California, USA | Observational: an airport, a junior college campus, a public building, an office complex, and a park | Airborne nicotine | No. of cigarettes smoked, wind speed, and direction | Range, 0.013–3.1µg/m3 | Range, 0.009–0.12µg/m3 | |
| Repace 2005, Baltimore, USA | Experimental: various locations on the UMBC campus (outdoors and indoors) | PM3.5 and PAH | Distances, number of smokers, and wind conditions | Range, 100–150µg/m3 outdoors in proximity to smokers | ||
| Boffi etal. 2006, Copenhagen, Denmark | Observational: in a car park, inside a nonsmoking conference center, outdoors in front of the conference center, with smokers under a roof, along the motorway, and inside a Copenhagen restaurant where smoking was allowed | PM2.5 | None | Outside in front of a conference center: 17.8µg/m3. Along the motorway: 4.6µg/m3 | Car parking area: 6.0µg/m3. Inside a conference center: 3.0µg/m3 | 5.7µg/m3 |
| Klepeis etal. 2007, California, USA | Observational and experimental: 10 outdoor public places including parks, sidewalk cafés, and restaurant and pub patios. Results provided for hospitality venues and other settings combined | PM2.5 | Wind conditions, source proximity, and no. of cigarettes | Overall mean: 30µg/m3. Maximum: 1,000µg/m3 at distances within 0.5 m | ||
| Wilson etal. 2007, New Zealand | Observational: 10 transportation settings, 9 non-hospitality indoor settings, and 6 non-hospitality outdoor settings. Also in this study: 34 pubs, restaurants, and bars and 6outdoor smoking areas of bars and restaurants | PM2.5 | No. of people in room/area and no. of lit cigarettes among occupants | Transportations settings (n=10): 13µg/m3. Non-hospitality indoors (n=9): 3µg/m3. Non-hospitality outdoors (n=6): 7µg/m3 | 14µg/m3 | |
| Kaufman etal. 2010b, Toronto, Canada | Observational: entrances to 28 office buildings both indoor and outdoor | PM2.5 | No. of cigarettes, wind direction and strength, and distance from the nearest lit cigarette to the monitor | Overall median outdoors: 11µg/m3 (1–4 cig); 16µg/m3 (≥5 cig). Maximum: 496µg/m3. Overall median indoors: 6µg/m3 (1–4 cig); 4µg/m3 (≥5 cig) | Overall median outdoors: 8µg/m3. Overall median indoors: 5µg/m3 | 8µg/m3 |
| Parry etal. 2011, New Zealand | Observational: streets (no. of samples not indicated) | PM2.5 | No. of smokers, smoking proximity, and coverage | Overall mean: 14.2µg/m3. Maximum: 186.0µg/m3 | Overall mean: 5.9µg/m3 | |
| Sureda etal. 2012, Barcelona, Spain | Observational: 47 public building main entrances (both outdoors and indoors) | PM2.5 and airborne nicotine | No. of lit cigarettes, coverage, and distance to roadways | Overall PM2.5 concentration outdoor: 17.16µg/m3. Overall PM2.5 concentration indoor: 18.20µg/m3. Nicotine concentration in 28main entrances outdoors: 0.81µg/m3. Maximum value PM2.5 (outdoor): 128.44µg/m3 | Overall PM2.5 concentration Control point indoor: 10.40µg/m3 | PM2.5 concentration: 13.00µg/m3 |
| Wilson etal. 2011, New Zealand | Observational: 15 inside public buildings, 15 inside transportation settings, and 22 various outdoor street/park settings. Also in this study: 20 outdoor smoking areas of hospitality venues, 13 inside bars adjacent to outdoor smoking areas, 10 pubs/sports bars, 18 bars, 9restaurants, and 5 cafés | PM2.5 | None | Inside non-hospitality settings (n=30): range, 2–13µg/m3. Non-hospitality outdoor settings: range, 2–11µg/m3 | 11µg/m3 | |
| cig, cigarettes. | ||||||