Table 4.
Four Regression Estimates of Incarceration and Socioeconomic Factors Predicting Aggressive Behavior
| Model 1: Cross-section |
Model 2: Incarceration Y3-Y5 |
Model 3: Lagged DV |
Model 4: Individual Fixed Effects |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Father ever incarcerated | 0.131** (0.045) |
|||
| Father Incarcerated between Y3-Y5 |
0.225*** (0.057) |
0.247*** (0.056) |
0.238*** (0.061) |
|
| Aggressive at Year 3 | 0.477*** (0.024) |
|||
| Mother ever incarcerated | 0.034 (0.071) |
|||
| Mother incarcerated between Y3 and Y5 |
−0.068 (0.106) |
−0.099 (0.121) |
−0.079 (0.142) |
|
| Early-Life Covariates | ||||
| Mother’s race | ||||
| Black non-Hispanic | −0.058 (0.055) |
−0.059 (0.055) |
−0.011 (0.059) |
|
| Hispanic | −0.014 (0.063) |
−0.010 (0.063) |
−0.025 (0.067) |
|
| Other | 0.077 (0.109) |
0.073 (0.110) |
−0.035 (0.121) |
|
| Parents not same race | −0.101 (0.054) |
−0.101 (0.054) |
−0.039 (0.056) |
|
| Mother immigrant (or unknown national origin) |
−0.037 (0.073) |
−0.031 (0.073) |
0.029 (0.081) |
|
| Father immigrant status | −0.041 (0.071) |
−0.055 (0.070) |
0.033 (0.076) |
|
| Mother’s impulsivity score (scored from 0–6) |
0.069*** (0.012) |
0.070*** (0.012) |
0.031* (0.013) |
|
| Father’s impulsivity score (scored from 0–6) |
0.045*** (0.013) |
0.045** (0.013) |
0.041** (0.013) |
|
| Mother’s cognitive score (scored from 0–16) |
0.004 (0.008) |
0.005 (0.008) |
0.005 (0.008) |
|
| Father’s cognitive score | −0.003 (0.008) |
−0.003 (0.008) |
−0.001 (0.008) |
|
| Mother lived with both parents at age 15 |
−0.021 (0.040) |
−0.019 (0.040) |
−0.048 (0.044) |
|
| Father lived with both parents at age 15 |
−0.047 (0.043) |
−0.047 (0.043) |
−0.012 (0.046) |
|
| Maternal grandmother experienced depression |
0.170*** (0.046) |
0.163*** (0.046) |
0.031 (0.046) |
|
| Paternal grandmother experienced depression |
0.038 (0.047) |
0.031 (0.048) |
0.014 (0.048) |
|
| Covariates established in adulthood |
||||
| Mother’s age at child’s birth | −0.010* (0.004) |
−0.010* (0.004) |
−0.006 (0.004) |
|
| Father 5+ years older | −0.083 (0.045) |
−0.078 (0.045) |
−0.066 (0.048) |
|
| Mother’s education | ||||
| High school dropout | 0.004 (0.052) |
0.009 (0.052) |
0.011 (0.056) |
|
| Some college | −0.063 (0.051) |
−0.060 (0.051) |
−0.089 (0.052) |
|
| College or more | −0.153* (0.072) |
−0.160* (0.072) |
−0.173* (0.075) |
|
| Father more educated | −0.036 (0.050) |
−0.036 (0.050) |
−0.012 (0.052) |
|
| Relationship at child’s birth | ||||
| Cohabiting | 0.016 (0.053) |
0.028 (0.053) |
−0.009 (0.058) |
|
| Nonresident | 0.094 (0.061) |
0.097 (0.061) |
−0.016 (0.065) |
|
| Mother in poverty at child’s birth |
0.098* (0.045) |
0.098* (0.045) |
0.110* (0.048) |
|
| Mother employed (baseline) | 0.040 (0.040) |
0.042 (0.040) |
0.055 (0.042) |
|
| Father employed (baseline) | −0.012 (0.058) |
−0.016 (0.057) |
0.018 (0.059) |
|
| Log of father’s hourly wages (baseline) |
0.078* (0.035) |
0.081* (0.035) |
0.087* (0.035) |
|
| Mother in good health at baseline? |
−0.083* (0.041) |
−0.085* (0.041) |
−0.020 (0.043) |
|
| Mother reports domestic violence at baseline |
0.074 (0.103) |
0.063 (0.101) |
0.052 (0.102) |
|
| Mother smoked while pregnant |
0.111* (0.052) |
0.119* (0.052) |
0.032 (0.053) |
|
| Mother used hard drugs (Y1) | −0.672** (0.321) |
−0.680* (0.306) |
−0.730*** (0.182) |
|
| Father used hard drugs(Y1) | −0.308 (0.381) |
−0.338 (0.370) |
−0.304 (0.452) |
|
| Mother reported alcohol use (Y1) |
0.068 (0.084) |
0.064 (0.084) |
0.067 (0.085) |
|
| Father reported alcohol use (Y1) |
0.009 (0.048) |
0.022 (0.048) |
0.045 (0.051) |
|
| Male Child | 0.150*** (0.036) |
0.142*** (0.036) |
0.066 (0.038) |
|
| Child born at low birthweight |
0.083 (0.068) |
0.084 (0.068) |
0.054 (0.072) |
|
| Child mother’s firstborn | −0.195*** (0.041) |
−0.205*** (0.041) |
−0.117** (0.044) |
Notes: Standard Errors in parentheses. Missing data indicators included in models, but not in table.
*
p<.05
**
p<.01
***
p<.001