Table 2.

Common pathophysiological mechanisms in TBI and AD.

Molecular dysfunction	TBI (clinical and experimental)	AD (human brain and transgenic mouse model)
Impaired synaptic plasticity ↓LTP ↑LTD	Albensi et al., 2000; Scheff et al., 2005	Oddo et al., 2003; Trinchese et al., 2004
Impaired glutamate transport ↓GLAST/EAAT1 ↓GLT-1/EAAT2	Rao et al., 1998; van Landeghem et al., 2006; Yi and Hazell, 2006	Masliah et al., 1996; Li et al., 1997; Scott et al., 2011
↑NMDA receptor activation	Palmer et al., 1993	Revett et al., 2013
Intracellular calcium dysregulation	Sun et al., 2008; Saatman et al., 2010	See review Supnet and Bezprozvanny, 2010
Mitochondrial dysfunction	Xiong et al., 1997; Gilmer et al., 2009	Dragicevic et al., 2010; Reddy et al., 2010
Oxidative stress	Ansari et al., 2008; Cheng et al., 2012	Ansari and Scheff, 2010
Calcineurin activation	Kurz et al., 2005a,b	Liu et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2010
Calpain activation	Vosler et al., 2008; Saatman et al., 2010	Trinchese et al., 2008; Ferreira, 2012
Apoptosis	Minambres et al., 2008; Stoica and Faden, 2010	Castro et al., 2010; Rohn, 2010
Caspase-3 activation	Clark et al., 2000; Stone et al., 2002; Abrahamson et al., 2006; Walker et al., 2012	Tesco et al., 2007; see review Castro et al., 2010; Rohn, 2010
↑BACE1 level and activity	Blasko et al., 2004; Loane et al., 2009; Walker et al., 2012	Fukumoto et al., 2002; Holsinger et al., 2002; Sun et al., 2002; Tyler et al., 2002; Tesco et al., 2007; Cole and Vassar, 2008
↓GGA3 and GGA1 adaptor proteins	Walker et al., 2012	Tesco et al., 2007; Walker et al., 2012
Inflammation and chronic microglial activation	Ramlackhansingh et al., 2011; Acosta et al., 2013	Cagnin et al., 2001; Heneka et al., 2005; Schindowski et al., 2006; Parachikova et al., 2007; Garwood et al., 2010; Ferretti et al., 2012