Table 2.
Summary of estimated facet forces and pressures during loading of intact specimens
| Loading Details | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Level | Direction | Magnitude | Property | Technique | Reference | |
| C4-C5 | Compression | 80 N | Force (N) | 30 − 38 | FEM | [323] |
| C5-C6 | Pressure (MPa) | 0.13 − 0.19 | ||||
| C4-C5 | Flexion | 1.3 (±0.3) Nm | Pressure (MPa) | 0.086 (±0.012) | Pressure paper between | [106] |
| C6-C7 | Extension | 1.7 (±0.5) Nm | 0.092 (±0.014) | facet surfaces | ||
| Flexion | 1.3 (±0.3) Nm | −0.047 (±0.057) | Tip-mounted pressure sensor | |||
| Extension | 1.7 (±0.5) Nm | 0.158 (±0.040) | in posterior region of superior facet | |||
| C5-C6 | Flexion | 2.7 (±0.3) Nm | Pressure (MPa) | 0.010 (±0.010) | Tip-mounted pressure sensor | [146] |
| Extension | 2.4 (±0.3) Nm | 0.068 (±0.027) | in posterior region of superior facet | |||
| C5-C6 | Compression | 73.6 N | Force (N) | 4.2 N | FEM | [322] |
| + | ||||||
| Flexion | None | |||||
| Extension | 1.8 Nm | 37.6 | ||||
| Axial torsion | 28.5 | |||||
| SL CS HE FL | FEM | [331] | ||||
| Cervical | Compression | 4.5 mm | Compressive | 0.29 0.55 0.39 0.05 | ||
| Flexion | stress (MPa) | 0.04 0.23 3.98 0.28 | ||||
| Extension | 18 deg | 0.29 0.30 4.90 0.23 | ||||
| Lateral bending | 0.02 0.14 3.81 0.23 | |||||
| T12-L2 | Flexion | Force (N) | 46.1 (±41.3) | Uniaxial strain gages on the | [11] | |
| Extension | 51.5 (±39.0) | outer lateral portion of L2 | ||||
| Axial torsion − ipsi | 31.3 (±33.4) | superior articular processes | ||||
| Axial torsion − contra | Up to 7.5 Nm | 70.3 (±43.2) | ||||
| Lateral bending − ipsi | (1.5 Nm increments) | 32.0 (±44.4) | ||||
| Lateral bending − contra | 30.6 (±29.1) | |||||
| Axial compression | 400 N | 45.5 (±40.4) | ||||
| + | ||||||
| Flexion | Unspecified | 46.6 (±41.9) | ||||
| Extension | Unspecified | 75.4 (±39.0) | ||||
| L1-L2 | Neutral position | Pressure (MPa) | 4.5 (±1.6) | Pressure paper between facet surfaces | [137] | |
| L2-L3 | ||||||
| L3-L4 | Flexion | 4 deg | 3.7 (±1.3) | |||
| L4-L5 | ||||||
| L5-S1 | Extension | 4 deg | 5.8 (±1.6) | |||
| 6 deg | 6.1 (±1.9) | |||||
| L1-L5 | Compression | 500 N | Force (N) | 43 (@ L2-L3) | FEM | [268] |
| + | ||||||
| Extension | 7.5 Nm (@ L1) | 86 (@ L2-L3) | ||||
| Extension | 20 deg (@ L1) | 117 (@ L4-L5) | ||||
| L2-L3 a | Axial compression | 100 N | 23 (±16) | Uniaxial strain gages on the | [131] | |
| + | outer lateral portion of | |||||
| Flexion | 1 Nm | Force (N) | None | right L3 superior articular process | ||
| Extension | 2 Nm | 74 (±23) | ||||
| Axial torsion | 4 Nm | 92 (±27) | ||||
| Lateral bending − ipsi | 1 Nm | 40 (±32) | ||||
| Lateral bending − contra | 1 Nm | 54 (±19) | ||||
| Axial torsion | 2.3 Nm | 32 | Pressure paper between | |||
| 6.0 Nm | 210 | facet surfaces | ||||
| Left Right | [136] | |||||
| L2-L5 | Flexion | Force (N) | 2 (±5) 4 (±4) | Pressure film between | ||
| Extension | 7.5 Nm | 13 (±14) 14 (±10) | facet surfaces | |||
| Lateral bending | 11(±11) 16 (±14) | |||||
| Axial torsion | 56 (±17) 55 (±18) | |||||
| L4-L5 | Flexion | None | FEM | [271] | ||
| Extension | 7.5 Nm | Force (N) | 50 | |||
| Lateral bending | 36 | |||||
| Axial torsion | 105 | |||||
| L5-S1 | Axial compression | 650 N | Force (N) | Pressure film between | [134] b | |
| Shear | 550 N | facet surfaces | ||||
| + | Group 1 Group 2 | |||||
| Flexion | 40 (±13) 45 (±10) | |||||
| Extension | 6 deg | 54 (±18) 65 (±18) | ||||
| Lateral rotation − ipsi | 50 (±13) 54 (±19) | |||||
| Lateral rotation − contra | 9 (±4) 33 (±10) | |||||
Note: C-Cervical, T-Thoracic, L-Lumbar; FEM − Finite Element Model; SL-slideline model, CS-contact surface model, HE-hyperelastic model, FL-incompressibe fluid model of articular cartilage; ispsi − ipsilateral, contra – contralateral.
a
canine
b
reported here from non-tabular data of two separate test groups.