Table 1.
Evidence of the effects of limits of days of alcohol sale on excessive alcohol consumption and related harms
| Study Design description (suitability) Study execution (no. of limitations) |
Population Study time period |
Intervention comparison | Analysis Outcome |
Reported findings | Review Effect size |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Days of sale: On-premises | |||||
| Ligon (1996)22 Interrupted time series: before-and-after with comparison (greatest) Fair (2) |
Athens GA January 1992–December 1993 |
Intervention: On 12/8/1992, Athens-Clarke County amended the Alcoholic Beverage Ordinance. Previously, Sunday sales of liquor were banned. After the change, restaurant patrons were able to purchase alcoholic beverages with food, but bars and taverns remained closed and off-premises sales were still prohibited. Comparison: Other days of the week |
Chi-squarebr1>DUI arrests | Following the change in law, the incidence of DUIs was lowest for Sundays. The frequency of DUI arrests made on Sundays were statistically lower than every other day of the week, except for Monday | Relative % change (95%CI): 39.8 (−21.9, 150.4) |
| Smith (1978)28 Interrupted time series: before-and-after with comparison (greatest) Fair (2) |
Perth, Western Australia 3 years before and 3 years after new law (used midpoint of June 30, 1970) |
Intervention: On 7/7/1970 the sale and supply of alcoholic beverages on Sundays in the Perth Metropolitan area of Western Australia became legal. In general, two 2-hour drinking sessions were permitted. Prior to the change, alcohol sales at on-premises facilities were permitted between 10 AM and 10 PM only, Monday to Saturday. Comparison: Remainder of the state |
Chi-square Traffic crashes: people killed in motor vehicle crashes |
Significant increase in the proportion of people killed and the number of motor vehicle crashes on Sundays, compared with the other 6 days of the week in Perth. No increases in the proportions of people killed or in the number of motor vehicle crashes occurring on Sundays in comparison with the other days of the week for the rest of the state. 11% of the 453 people killed in Perth traffic crashes were killed on Sundays: after the new law, 16.9% of 486 people were killed on Sundays (χ2= 6.134, p>0.02). Rest of the state proportions were 18 and 17.4% before and after (χ2= .0318, p>0.80). Motor vehicle crashes occurring on Sundays in the Perth area increased from 12.4% of 11,598 before the new law to 14.2% of 11,870 afterward (χ2=16.85, p<0.001). In the rest of the state the proportion of motor vehicle crashes occurring on Sunday decreased from 19.7% to 18.4% (χ2 = 15.95, p>0.20) |
Relative % change: People killed: 58.9; motor vehicle crashes: 22.6 |
| Smith (1988)30 Before-and-after with comparison (greatest) Fair (2) |
Brisbane, Australia Before period: April 1, 1968–March 31, 1970 After period: April 1, 1970–March 31, 1973 3-year After period: April 1, 1973–March 31, 1976 |
Intervention: On April 3, 1970, Sunday alcohol sales were introduced in Brisbane, Australia. Sunday drinking was allowed from 11 AM to 1 PM and 4 PM to 6 PM Comparison: Other days of the week and the rest of Queensland |
Chi-square Motor vehicle crashes |
First follow-up period: Only the segment from 6:00 PM to 7:59 PM gave a significant result for Brisbane. In comparison to the other 6 days of the week, and after allowing for the slight change in the control data from the before to the after period, the annual increase was 129.8%. No significant differences in Brisbane motor vehicle crashes on Sundays between 8:00 PM and 10:59 AM. No significant increases in Queensland Sunday motor vehicle crashes occurred for any of the time segments. 3-year follow-up available, but data incomplete | Relative % change (95%CI): 65.0 (30.49, 108.65) |
| Smith (1987)29 Before-and-after with comparison (greatest) Fair (3) |
New South Wales, Australia Before period: December 7, 1976–December 6, 1979 After period: December 7, 1979– December 6, 1981 |
Intervention: In 1978, Select Committee of the New South Wales Parliament considered the issue of hotel alcohol service hours in that state. Subsequently it was recommended on December 7, 1979 that the hotel service hours of 12 NOON to 10:00 PM on Sundays be introduced. Comparison: Other days of the week and the rest of the Queensland state |
Chi-square Motor vehicle fatalities Traffic crashes |
After the introduction of a 10-hour hotel session in New South Wales, for the 12-hour period from 12:00 NOON to 11:59 PM, there was a 22.2% increase in Sunday fatal crashes. None of the analyses for the control period of 12:00 MN to 11:59 AM gave significant results in the same direction as for motor vehicle fatalities or traffic crashes. | Relative % change (95%CI): Motor vehicle Fatalities 15.5 (−0.13, 33.59) Traffic crashes 6.7 (0.56, 13.21) |
| Smith (1990)31 Before-and-after with comparison (greatest) Fair (3) |
Victoria, Australia Before period: January 1, 1980–December 31, 1983 After period: January 1, 1984–December 31, 1984 The following 12 months were used as the “after” period for the 8-hour Sunday drinking permit. |
Intervention: Two legislative changes that increased the Sunday availability of alcoholic beverages in Victoria. Prior to July 13, 1983, on Sunday, hotels and licensed clubs in Victoria could sell alcoholic beverages for consumption only with a meal. After that date, hotels and clubs were allowed to obtain a permit that permitted them to open for two 2-hour periods on Sunday between 12 NOON and 8PM. The two drinking periods had to be at least 2 hours apart. Following an amendment to the Victorian Liquor Control Act, as of November 1984, hotels and clubs could apply for a permit that enabled them to open between 12 NOON and 8 PM on Sundays. The 1984 amendment also allowed for hotels to obtain a permit to continue Monday to Saturday ordinary bar trading from 10 PM to 12 MN. The amendment also introduced Sunday restaurant hours of 12 NOON to 11:30 PM. Previously, the Sunday restaurant opening hours were 12 NOON to 4PM and 6 to 10 PM. Comparison: Other days of the week |
Chi-square Motor vehicle traffic crashes |
The introduction of the two 2-hour drinking sessions on Sundays did not adversely affect the number of motor vehicle crashes, so information on 8- hour drinking not included. | Relative % change (95% CI): 9.9 (3.27, 16.98) |
| Knight (1980)21 Before-and-after study design without comparison (least) Fair (4) |
Four major cities and central belt of Scotland Before: March 1977 After: October 1977 |
Intervention: In 1973, Scottish Licensing Law changed. The two main changes were the extension of evening hours on weekdays to 11 PM (previously 10 PM) and the provision for special licenses to allow pubs to open regularly on Sundays. Sunday licenses were not issued for approved public houses until October 1977. Comparison: No comparison group |
Percentage changes Consumption and patterns of consumption |
Increase in consumption among men aged <45 years. Virtually no change in drinking among women. | Average change in consumption for men: 6.82 Average change in consumption for women: 1.85 |
| Days of sale; hours off-premises | |||||
| McMillan (2006)23 McMillan (2007)24 Time-series study with prospective data collection (greatest) Fair (3) |
Location: New Mexico Dates: Intervention: July 1995 Pre-period: July 1990–June 1995 Follow-up: July 1995–2000 |
Intervention: Legalized Sunday off-premises sales:
|
RR ARCs and fatalities |
ARC RR (95% CI)= 1.29 (1.05, 1.58) ARC fatalities (95% CI)=1.42 (1.05, 1.93) Mean RR ARC Fatalities rest of week (95% CI)=1.07 (0.80, 1.45) Excess ARCs in study period (95%, CI)=543.1 (158.9, 927.4) Excess ARC fatalities (95% CI)=41.6 (6.6, 76.6) 2007 Study: Three counties that overturned ban repeal right away had lowest ARC RR; only one other county had RR in lowest category. |
Alcohol-related Sunday crash fatalities (relative % change [95% CI]): 26.8% (3.3, 44.2) |
| Norstrom (2003)25 Norstrom (2005)26 Experimental time- series design (greatest) Good (1) |
Location: Sweden Dates: Pre-intervention: January 1995–July 2000 Phase I (experimental): February 2000–June 2001 Phase II (whole country): July 2001–July 2002 |
Intervention: Saturday sales allowed experimentally for six counties (Phase I)
|
ARIMA and parametric models Alcohol sales, assaults, drunken driving, and positive breath analyzer test results |
Effects appear uniform across three experimental areas, tendency toward weaker effect in Northern Sweden not sign. Phase I consumption (relative % change):
|
Relative % changes (95% CI): Drunk driving: 11.3% (4.2, 18.4) Alcohol sales (liters pure alcohol per capita per year): 3.6% (2.6, 4.6) Assaults, women (indoors): 0.6% (−6.5, 7.7) Assaults, total: −1.3% (−5.6, 3.0) |
| Olsson (1982)27 Experimental time- series design (greatest) Fair (3) |
Location: Sweden Dates Pre-period: June 1980–September 1980 Follow-up: June 1981–September 1981 Intervention: May 1981 |
Intervention: Saturday closure of retail liquor stores Comparison: Non-Saturdays |
Police interventions Intoxicated people Domestic disturbances Outdoor assaults |
Sales of alcohol: Slight decline could not be attributed to effects of Saturday closing. Illegal trading: (Police judgment) % of districts reporting:
|
Relative % changes (95% CI): Outdoor assaults: −17.7% (−45.8, 25.0) Domestic disturbances −17.3% (−34.8, 4.8) Police interventions against intoxicated people −35.7% (−43.8, −26.4) |
| Stehr (2007)32 Econometric state-level time- series analysis (greatest) Fair (2) |
U.S. 1990–2004 Bans were repealed in the following states: 1995: New Mexico 2002: Oregon 2003: Delaware, Kansas, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania 2004: Rhode Island, Idaho, Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia 2005: Washington |
Intervention: Having a Sunday ban on off-premises purchase (12 states during the study period). Specific to either beer or liquor, but wine not included. Comparison: States that did not allow sales on Sunday in each year of data collection. |
Time-series analysis of state-level variables, including Sunday bans. Controlled for pre-repeal trends |
Per capita beer sales in gallons
|
Beer sales: 2.4% relative change due to repeal of bans Spirits sales: 3.5% relative change due to repeal of bans Note: Although authors coded for presence of Sunday bans, all policy changes during the study period were in the direction of repeal, so the signs have been reversed in reporting effect (above). |
| Nordlund (1985)33 | Norway Before: 1983 After: 1984 |
Intervention: In select villages, shops were allowed to re-open on Saturdays, in contrast to the newly instituted Saturday closing in the rest of the country. Comparison: Shops in control cities (matched by size and demographic characteristics to be similar to intervention towns). These remained open on Saturday as always. |
Customer calls Cash turnover Liters pure alcohol Liters total sale all outlets Arrests for drunkenness Reports of drunkenness Reports domestic trouble Reports of violence |
Customers made fewer trips to vinmonopolets (i.e., state alcoholic beverage monopoly stores). Total sales at these outlets declined, but the total sales at all outlets went up slightly. Reports of drunkenness went down but not significantly, while drunkenness arrests declined significantly. Reports of domestic trouble went down a sizeable and significant 16%, whereas reports of violence went up 5%. General effects were consistent but small; ordinary drinkers consumed about the same total amount, purchased in fewer trips to the vinmonopolets with larger purchases per trip. Ultimately, the Saturday closing was repealed because of insufficient evidence of benefit. |
Relative % changes: Liters pure alcohol: −3.1% Arrests for drunkenness: −5.8% Reports of drunkenness: −5.0% Reports domestic trouble: −15.9% Reports of violence: 5% |
ARC, alchohol-related crashes; ARIMA, autoregressive integrated moving average; RR, relative risk