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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Sep 1.
Published in final edited form as: Free Radic Biol Med. 2013 Feb 8;62:65–75. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.01.032

Table 1.

Similarities and Differences between PD and Manganese Toxicity.

Parkinson’s Disease Manganese Toxicity Reference
Genetic Determination Yes, can be autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. Approximately 10–20% of cases linked to genetic causes No [199]
Selective DA sensitivity Yes Yes- however several studies have pointed to the selectivity of glutamate and possibly GABA [5759]
Brain regions affected Substancia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) primarily and striatum Globus pallidus primarily but striatum, and substancia nigra may also be involved [6, 19, 199]
Mitochondrial dysfunction/ oxidative stress Yes Yes [85, 199]
L-DOPA responsive Yes Generally unresponsive to L-DOPA however, some motor symptoms reversed but with major side effects [52]
Symptoms Emotional and cognitive decline, bradykinesia, rigidity, tremors and postural instability. Extrapyramidal syndrome [19, 49, 200, 201]
Slowed hand movements, irritability, aggressiveness and hallucinations.
Later stages: masked-face, forward-flexed posture, gait freezing, shuffling steps, GI issues Later stages: Rigidity, tremor, gait disturbances (slow and clumsy movements), hypokinesia, facial muscle spasms, propensity to fall backward when pushed, less frequent resting tremor, more frequent dystonia, a “cock-walk” collectively referred to as ‘manganism’