Table 1.
Overview of sulfide toxicity effects reported in marine, brackish and freshwater plants.
| Ecotype | Concentration | Observation | Method | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Species | (μmol L−1) | |||
| SEAGRASS MEADOWS | ||||
| Halodule wrightii | 2000 | AD | Glucose add. to increase SO4 red. | Koch et al., 2007 |
| Posidonia oceanica | >1800 | AD | Glucose add. to increase SO4 red. | Frederiksen et al., 2008 |
| Halophila ovalis | >150 | AP, RP, | Raised T (25–30°C) in aq. exp. | Holmer et al., 2011 |
| Posidonia oceanica | 1500 | AP, AD | Field Fe addition to lower HS− | Marbà et al., 2007 |
| Thalassia testudinum | >500 | AD | Field observation | Borum et al., 2005 |
| Thalassia testudinum | 5500 | AD | Glucose add. to increase SO4 red. | Koch et al., 2007 |
| Thalassia testudinum | 6000 | AD (only high T and Sal.) | H2S in hydroponic culture | Koch and Erskine, 2001 |
| Thalassia testudinum | 5000 | AD | org. matter to increase SO4 red. | Ruiz-Halpern et al., 2008 |
| Zostera marina | 600/1000 | NP (low/high light) | H2S inject. microcosm sediment | Goodman et al., 1995 |
| Zostera marina | >1800 | No indication of AD | Glucose add. to increase SO4 red. | Frederiksen et al., 2008 |
| Zostera noltii | >200 | AP | Omission of Loripes bivalves | Van der Heide et al., 2012 |
| Zostera noltii | >500 | LE (from patches) | org. matter to increase SO4 red. | Govers et al. pers. observ. |
| Zostera marina | 600 | AP, AD | Raised T (18°C) in aq. exp. | Hoffle et al., 2011 |
| SALT MARSHES | ||||
| Agrostis stolonifera | 500 | AP, NU | H2S in hydroponic culture | Van Diggelen et al., 1987 |
| Halimione portulacoides | 500 | AP, NU | H2S in hydroponic culture | Van Diggelen et al., 1987 |
| Salicomia dolichostachya | >500 | AP | H2S in hydroponic culture | Van Diggelen et al., 1987 |
| Salicomia brachystachya | >500 | AP | H2S in hydroponic culture | Van Diggelen et al., 1987 |
| Spartina alterniflora | 1000 | AP | Field observation | King et al., 1982 |
| Spartina alterniflora | 1130 | AP, RD | H2S in hydroponic culture | Koch and Mendelssohn, 1989 |
| Spartina alterniflora | 2000–3000 | AP, RA, NU | H2S in hydroponic culture | Koch et al., 1990 |
| Spartina alterniflora | 8000 | AP | Field observation | Lee, 1999 |
| Spartina anglica | 500 | AP | H2S in hydroponic culture | Van Diggelen et al., 1987 |
| MANGROVES | ||||
| Avicennia marina (sl) | 500–1000 | AP, RP | H2S inject. microcosm sediment | McKee, 1993 |
| Avicennia marina | >4000 | AP | Field observation | McKee, 1993 |
| Rhizophora mangle (sl) | >1000 | AP | H2S inject. microcosm sediment | McKee, 1993 |
| Rhizophora mangle | >1000 | AP | Field observation | McKee, 1993 |
| FRESHWATER AQUATIC SYSTEMS | ||||
| Ceratophyllum demersum | >500 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Elodea nutallii | 100 | AP | SO4 addition enclosures | Van der Welle et al., 2007a |
| Elodea nutallii | 150–500 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Hydrilla verticulata | 100 | NP | H2S in root hydroponic culture | Wu et al., 2009 |
| Nitella flexilis | 50 | AP | H2S injection aquarium sediment | Van der Welle et al., 2006 |
| Potamogeton compressus | 150–500 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Statiotes aloides | 10–100 | RD | H2S in root hydroponic culture | Smolders and Roelofs, 1996 |
| Stratiotes aloides | 100–600 | AP | SO4 addition enclosures | Van der Welle et al., 2007a |
| Stratiotes aloides | 500 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| FRESH WATER WETLANDS | ||||
| Calamagrostis epigejos (sl) | 30–50 | AP | Natural production in microcosm | Grootjans et al., 1997 |
| Calla palustris | 150 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Caltha palustris | 170 | AP, Y | H2S injection microcosm sed. | Van der Welle et al., 2007b |
| Carex disticha | 10–20 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Lamers et al., 1998 |
| Carex disticha | 25 | LC, RD | H2S injection microcosm sed. | Lamers, 2001 |
| Carex nigra | 10–20 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Lamers et al., 1998 |
| Cladium jamaicense | 220/690/920 | LE/NP/AD, RD | H2S in hydroponic culture | Li et al., 2009 |
| Equisetum fluviatile | 50/500 | AP (unfertilized/fertilized) | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Juncus acutiflorus | 25/250 | RD/AP | H2S injection microcosm sed. | Lamers, 2001 |
| Juncus alpinoarticulatus (sl) | 30–50 | AP | Natural production in microcosm | Grootjans et al., 1997 |
| Juncus effusus | 500 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Menyanthes trifoliata | 150/>150 | AP (unfertilized/fertilized) | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Menyanthes trifoliata | >235 | AP | Field observation | Armstrong and Boatman, 1967 |
| Panicum hemitomon | 630 | AP, RD | H2S in hydroponic culture | Koch and Mendelssohn, 1989 |
| Panicum hemitomon | 1000 | AP, RA, NU | H2S in hydroponic culture | Koch et al., 1990 |
| Phragmites australis | 1400 | AD, SR, B | H2S in hydroponic culture | Armstrong et al., 1996 |
| Phragmites australis | 1500 | AP | SO4 + C addition mesocosms | Howes et al., 2005 |
| Phragmites australis | 400 | AP | Field observation | Chambers, 1997 |
| Oryza sativa | 170 | RP, B, RO, NU(Fe), WU | H2S in anaerobic agar | Armstrong and Armstrong, 2005 |
| Oryza sativa | 160–310 | AP | H2S in hydroponic culture | Tanaka et al., 1968 |
| Oryza sativa | 30 | AP | H2S in hydroponic culture | Hollis et al., 1972 |
| Oryza sativa (sl) | 10–60 | NU (acute), RO | H2S in hydroponic culture | Joshi et al., 1975 |
| Ranunculus lingua | 500 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Sphagnum cuspidatum | 60 | AD | SO4 addition mesocosms | Lamers et al., 1999 |
| Thelypteris palustris | 150 | AP | SO4 addition mesocosms | Geurts et al., 2009 |
| Typha domingensis | 920 | LE, NP, AD, RD | H2S in hydroponic culture | Li et al., 2009 |
Concentrations are in μmol L−1, (sl), seedling. Observations: AP, decreased aboveground productivity; AD, aboveground die-off; B, blockage of gas pathways and vascular blockage; LC, leaf chlorosis; LE, decreased leaf elongation rate; NP, decreased net photosynthetic rate; NU, decreased nutrient uptake; RD, root (and rhizome) die-off; RO, decreased radial oxygen loss; RA, decreased root ADH activity; RP, decreased belowground production; SR, stunted roots; WU, reduced water uptake; Y, decreased photosynthetic yield (PAM fluorescence).