Figure 6.

Schematic representation of autophagy and therapeutic intervention strategies. Treatment of cancer cells with autophagy inducers (e.g., rapamycin, ceramide, tamoxifen) or autophagy initiation inhibitors (e.g., 3-methyladenine, paclitaxel) regulate the initiation step of autophagy. Autophagy involves the initial formation of double membrane autophagosomes and sequestering of cellular components (e.g., aggregated cellular proteins and damaged organelles). Maturation of autophagosome requires the fusion with lysosomes to form autolysosomes, which is followed by degradation of cellular components by lysosomal enzymes. Autophagy maturation/degradation inhibitors (e.g., hydroxychloroquine, bafilomycin A₁, vinblastine, nocodazole) block autophagosome fusion with lysosomes, resulting in blockade of autophagy flux and the accumulation of autophagic vacuoles.