Fig. 1.

Multigroup path models predicting the growth in (a) early reading skills and (b) early spelling skills in English, Spanish, Czech, and Slovak children from Time 1 (at the onset of literacy instruction) to Time 2 (10 months later). Each model included five predictors: the corresponding skill at Time 1, plus Time 1 measures of phoneme awareness, letter knowledge, rapid-automatized-naming (RAN) speed, and word memory span. Unstandardized path weights are shown, and asterisks indicate significant effects (*p < .01).