Table 2.
Association of Hypospadias With Intake of Phytoestrogens Among Women in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997–2005
| Phytoestrogens, µg/daya | Unadjusted Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Energy-adjusted Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Covariate-adjusted Odds Ratiob | 95% CI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daidzein | ||||||
| ≤4.9 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.4 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 |
| 5.0–24.1 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥24.2 | 0.4 | 0.3, 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5, 1.0 |
| Genistein | ||||||
| ≤10.7 | 1.3 | 1.1, 1.6 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.4 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.4 |
| 10.8–41.7 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥41.8 | 0.4 | 0.3, 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.9 |
| Biochanin A | ||||||
| ≤6.7 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.7, 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 |
| 6.8–26.0 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥26.1 | 0.7 | 0.5, 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.8, 1.4 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.3 |
| Formonoetin | ||||||
| ≤2.5 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 | 0.8 | 0.7, 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 |
| 2.6–9.6 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥9.7 | 0.7 | 0.6, 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.5 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.2 |
| Glycetin | ||||||
| ≤3.7 | 1.2 | 1.0, 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 |
| 3.8–18.7 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥18.8 | 0.4 | 0.3, 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.3, 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.4, 1.0 |
| Matairesinol | ||||||
| ≤9.1 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.7, 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.7, 1.2 |
| 9.2–39.5 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥39.6 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.1 | 1.2 | 0.9, 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 |
| Secoisolariciresinol | ||||||
| ≤40.4 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 |
| 40.5–225.0 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥225.1 | 0.5 | 0.4, 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5, 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.9 |
| Coumestrol | ||||||
| ≤3.6 | 1.2 | 1.0, 1.4 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.4 |
| 3.7–17.3 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥17.4 | 0.7 | 0.5, 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.7, 1.3 |
| Total isoflavones | ||||||
| ≤25.7 | 1.1 | 0.9, 1.4 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 |
| 25.8–103.4 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥103.5 | 0.4 | 0.3, 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5, 1.0 |
| Total lignans | ||||||
| ≤50.8 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.6, 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.2 |
| 50.9–258.6 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥258.7 | 0.5 | 0.4, 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6, 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.6, 1.1 |
| Total phytoestrogens | ||||||
| ≤86.6 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.3 | 0.9 | 0.7, 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.8, 1.2 |
| 86.7–376.3 | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent | 1.0 | Referent |
| ≥376.4 | 0.4 | 0.3, 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.4, 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5, 1.0 |
Abbreviation: CI, confidence interval.
a Nutrient values reflect intakes ≤10th percentile and ≥90th percentile, with intakes between the 11th and 89th percentiles as reference. These categories were determined from nutrient intake levels among control mothers.
b Adjusted for maternal age (years), parity (ordinal), race/ethnicity, education, body mass index (weight (kg)/height (m)2), study center, folic acid–containing supplement intake, and energy intake (kcal).