Figure 1.

Algorithm for the Work-Up of Normal Volume Azoospermia.^{46, 95, 96, 97} Beginning with the history and the physical examination, one can often determine if the azoospermia is non-obstructive (spermatogenic failure) or obstructive (normal spermatogenesis with a blockage of the ductal system). Occasionally, the history and/or physical examination is equivocal and hormonal studies (specifically FSH) may be helpful in directing the next steps. FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; LH, luteinizing hormone; NOA, non-obstructive azoospermia; OA, obstructive azoospermia; TESE, testicular sperm extraction.