Table 2.

Biological stress ligands during pregnancy and offspring metabolic function and body composition/risk for overweight

Author	Species	Prenatal predictor	Outcome studied in the offspring	Age offspring studied	Effect
(a) Animal studies
Dahlgren et al. [23]	Rats	Prenatal administration of dexamethasone or IL-6 or TNF-α	Adiposity	Adulthood	All exposures associated with increased body weight and adipose tissue mass
De Blasio et al. [24]	Sheep	Maternal glucocorticoid administration during pregnancy	Glycemic control	Adulthood	Hyperinsulinemia
de Vries et al. [25]	Nonhuman primates	Maternal dexamethasone administration during pregnancy	Glycemic control	Young adulthood	Impaired glucose tolerance and hyperinsulinemia, with reduced pancreatic b-cell number at 12 months
Lindsay et al. [26]	Rats	Glucocorticoid exposure (11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 inhibitor)	Glycemic control	Adulthood	Hyperglycemia
Nilsson et al. [27]	Rats	Maternal exposure to immune challenge during pregnancy	Adiposity, food intake, leptin levels, glycemic control	Adulthood	Associated with increased adipose tissue weights, elevated food intake, increased circulating leptin, reduced insulin sensitivity

Author	Prenatal predictor	Outcome studied in the offspring	Age of offspring	Effect
(b) Human studies
Dalziel et al. [28]	Betamethasone administration during pregnancy (randomized–controlled trial)	Glucose tolerance	Young adulthood	Increased insulin resistance
Fasting et al. [29]	Second trimester placental CRH levels	Adiponectine and leptin concentrations	3 years	No association with leptin; associated with higher concentrations of adiponectin
Gillman et al. [30]	Second trimester placental CRH levels	Adiposity	3 years	Associated with an overall decrease in body size, but an increase in central adiposity
Radaelli et al. [31]	Maternal IL-6 levels at delivery	Body composition	Newborns	Associated with increased fat mass
Wadhwa et al. [32]	Placental CRH levels at 33 weeks gestation	Fetal growth restriction	Newborns	Associated with higher risk

CRH, corticotrophin-releasing hormone; IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.