Table 1.

Main characteristics of field applied and findings from in vitro studies.

Cell compartment	Frequency	Intensity	Time	EMF type	Biological effect	Reference
Cell membrane	25 pulses/s	Peak: 0.25 T; Average: 0.5 T	238 μs 1000 pulses/day	AC MF	Changes in the local pH and/or temperature	[10]
	<100 Hz	<100 μT	0–8 ns	MF	Formation of ion channels	[11]
	MW (≈1 GHz)	>105 V/m	Several periods of oscillation	EF		[12]
Cell cytoskeleton	50 Hz	0.5–1.5 mT	45 min	MF	No influence of EMF on cytoskeleton and/or motor proteins	[13]
	50 Hz	2 mT (rms)	72 h	MF	Changes in microtubule polymerization	[14]
	100–300 kHz	2 V/cm	24 h	AC EF		[15]
Cytoplasm
1st/2nd messengers	60 Hz	1.9–11.95 mG	–	MF	Melatonin involved in transmission of EMF into the cell	[16]
	50 Hz	Peak: 3 mT	24 h	EMF	Influence the transport of Ca2+ and, hence, its homeostasis	[17]
	50 Hz	2 mT	5 min	MF	Deregulation of the cAMP concentration	[18]
MAPK pathway	60Hz	0.8–300 μT	30 min	EMF	Induction of ERK1/2 phosphorylation	[19]
	875 MHz	0.005, 0.03 and 0.11 mW/cm2	30 min	EMF (S)		[20]
	900 MHz	1 W/kg	24 h	EMF (SAR)		[21]
	875 MHz	0.10 mW/cm2	30 min	EMF (S)	P38 MAPK activation	[20]
	60 Hz	6 mT	30 min/day;3 days	AC MF		[22]
Nucleus
Gene expression	60 Hz	0.8–300 μT	60 min	MF	Increase of AP-1 transcription factor	[19]
	60 Hz	8 μT	20 min field-on; 20 min field-off			[23]
	50 Hz	0.4 mT	20 min	MF	Increase RNA binding protein levels	[24]
	900 MHz	1 W/kg	–	EMF (SAR)	Increase in mRNA levels of Egr-1, Bcl-2 and survivin genes	[21]
DNA damage
1. Oxidative stress
1.1. Antioxidant system	50 Hz	1 mT rms	24 h	AC MF	↓ SOD activity	[25]
	50 Hz	1 mT	<96 h	MF	= SOD activity	[26]
	50 Hz	1 mT rms	24 h	AC MF	↓ Catalase activity	[25]
	50 Hz	1 mT	<96h	MF	Glutathione S-transferase	[26]
	50 Hz	1 mT	<96h	MF	Glutathione peroxidase	[26]
	50 Hz	1 mT	<96h	MF	↑ Reduced/total GSH ratio	[26]
1.2. Pro-oxidant molecules	50 Hz	1 mT rms	24 h	MF	↑ iNOS	[25]
	930 MHz	5 W/m2	5–15 min	CW EMF (S)	↑ ROS	[27]
	900 MHz	2 W peak 0.02 mW/cm2	30 min/day; 7 days	EMF (S)		[28]
	50 Hz	1 mT rms	24 h	AC MF		[25]
	50 Hz	1 mT	<96 h	MF	= ROS	[26]
2. Genotoxicity	60 Hz	6 mT	30 min/day; 1–3 days	AC MF	Increased levels of γH2AX	[22]
	50 Hz	1 mT	15 h, 5 field-on/10 field-off	MF	Double Strand Breaks	[29]
	50 Hz	1 mT	24 h	MF		[30]
	50 Hz	1 mT	15 h	EMF		[31]
	50 Hz	1 mT	15 h, 5′ field-on/10′ field-off	MF	Chromosome aberrations	[29]
	50 Hz	1 mT	2–24 h, 5′ field-on/10′ field-off.	MF	Micronucleus induction	[29]

AC: alternating current;cAMP:adenosine monophosphate; CW: continuous wave;DSBs: double strand breaks; EF: electric fields; EMF: electromagnetic fields; GSH: reduced glutathione; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthetase; MF: magnetic field; MW: microwave; rms: root mean square; S: power density, SAR: absorption rate; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase.