Table 1.

Medicinal plants and formulations used for treatment of various ailments by the Soren clan of Santals of Rajshahi district, Bangladesh.

Serial Number	Ailment with symptoms	Formulation	Local name of ingredients used
1	Paralysis, rheumatic pain (pain may be accompanied with swellings)	Leaves of Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) G. Don (Orchidaceae) are macerated with ginger slices [rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)] and applied to affected areas. *Patients reported that application for a long time gives good results in paralysis and is satisfactory for rheumatic pain.	Vanda tessellata: Rashna Zingiber officinale: Ada
2	Abscess on breast (accompanied by pain, inflammation and pus formation), rheumatic pain, joint pain, pain in nails or corner of nails or any type of pain, asthma, helminthiasis, dog bite	For breast abscess, 4–5 leaves of Datura metel L. (Solanaceae) are macerated with 7 slices of rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) and applied to affected area. If there is only pain but no pus formation in the abscess, macerated leaves of Datura metel are applied to abscess with old ghee (clarified butter). For any type of pain, warm leaves are applied to painful areas to obtain instant relief. For asthma, dried and powdered leaves of Datura metel are wrapped in a leaf of Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) and smoked like a cheroot. Alternately, leaves, flowers, fruits and roots of Datura metel are each taken in small portions and boiled. Smoke is inhaled while the parts are boiling. 2–3 drops of juice obtained from leaves of Datura metel is taken with milk from which butter has been churned out for helmintic infections. Roots of Datura metel are taken with raw milk every morning following breakfast for 3 days if a person is dog-bitten.	Datura metel: Konok dhutura Zingiber officinale: Ada Justicia adhatoda: Bashok
3	Snake bite	The snake-bitten patient is orally administered macerated leaves of Premna integrifolia L. (Verbenaceae) along with black peppers. At the same time macerated roots of the plant are applied to the bitten area.	Premna integrifolia: Goinal gach
4	Asthma, respiratory difficulties, chest pain due to cold, helminthiasis	For asthma and respiratory difficulties 4 tolas (1 tola = 12.5g) of powdered root of Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze (Lamiaceae) is mixed with honey and taken during night time. For chest pain due to cold, 3g of bark of fresh root or 2g of dried root is taken with warm water. For helminthiasis, 2g fresh root is macerated with 3–4 leaves. Pills prepared from the macerated mix are dried. 1–3 pills are taken as needed. *Patient report is that the formulation works very well for asthma and respiratory difficulties.	Clerodendrum indicum: Bamun hati
5	Burning sensations in hands or legs, otishar (Soren practitioner's term for dysentery, symptoms including black stool, blood with stool, thirst, fever, vomiting tendency, stomach pain)	Whole plants of Oldenlandia corymbosa L. (Rubiaceae) are soaked in water; the plants are then boiled in 4 cups of water. When the volume is reduced to 2 cups the water is strained through a piece of cloth and divided into two equal portions. One portion is to be taken in the morning, the other in the evening as treatment for burning sensations in hands or legs. For otishar, whole plants are macerated and taken orally.	Oldenlandia corymbosa: Koboch, Khet papra
6	Passing of semen with urine, leucorrhea, helminthiasis, gonorrhea, respiratory difficulties	For gonorrhea, 8–12 ml of juice obtained from fresh stems of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thoms. (Menispermaceae) is mixed with boiled cow milk or with cold water and taken in the morning, afternoon and evening. For respiratory difficulties, juice obtained from fresh stems of Tinospora cordifolia is mixed with juice obtained from leaves of Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) and Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Lamiaceae) and taken. For passing of semen with urine or leucorrhea, juice obtained from leaves and young stems of Tinospora cordifolia is mixed with a little powdered turmeric [dried, powdered rhizome of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae)] and taken in the morning on an empty stomach. *Patient report is that formulation is especially good and widely taken for passing of semen with urine and leucorrhea.	Tinospora cordifolia: Guloncho Justicia adhatoda: Bashok, Harboksh Ocimum tenuiflorum: Shada tulshi Curcuma longa: Holud
7	Helminthiasis, deafness due to old age	For helminthiasis, seeds of Centratherum anthelminticum (L.) Kuntze ex Gamble (Asteraceae) are slightly powdered and taken. For deafness, powdered seeds of Centratherum anthelminticum are taken with leaves of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Amaryllidaceae) in the morning on an empty stomach. Centratherum anthelminticum: Somraaj	Curculigo orchioides: talmul
8	Passing of semen with urine (called meho by Santal practitioners)	2g bark of Euphorbia neriifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae) is macerated with 4 leaves of Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) and taken during evening or at night before falling asleep.	Euphorbia neriifolia: Tejbol Piper betle: Paan
9	Typhoid, snake bite	4–5 leaves of Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae) are macerated and taken for typhoid. 2.5g of roots of the plant are mixed with 4–5 black peppers, macerated and orally administered to snake-bitten patients. *Note that if the patient is suffering from respiratory difficulties because of snake venom, the difficulty is corrected.	Acorus calamus: Boch
10	Abscess, diabetes, lack of appetite, vomiting tendency due to poisoning	2–3 teaspoonful of juice obtained from crushed leaves and roots of Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt (Cucurbitaceae) is slightly warmed and taken for diabetes. For lack of appetite, especially due to fever or mucus, leaves are boiled and then fried in ghee (clarified butter) and eaten. 5–6 tablespoonful of juice obtained from leaves is administered to patients who are vomiting due to effects of poisoning. Macerated leaves are applied as poultice to abscesses.	Coccinia grandis: Telakucha
11	Chicken pox, typhoid, influenza (symptoms: fever, mucus, body ache, tremor, dry cough)	Roots of Solanum barbisetum Nees (Solanaceae) are soaked in water. The water is taken twice daily in the morning and evening for chicken pox. Leaves of Solanum barbisetum are boiled in water. The water is strained and taken daily for typhoid. For influenza, leaves (about 6 annas amount; 16 annas = 1 ser = about 1 kg) and equal amount of stems of Solanum barbisetum are mixed with 12 black peppers [fruits of Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae)], 12 bay leaves [leaves of Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Nees & Eberm., (Lauraceae)], 2 fruits of Piper longum L., 1 chatak (1 chatak = 1 anna) rock salt, a little amount of powdered dried bark of Cinnamomum verum J.Presl. (Lauraceae) and 2 tolas (80 tolas = approximately 1 kg) of mishri (crystalline sugar) and boiled in ½ ser water in an earthen pot. When the water volume is reduced to ½ poa (4 poas = 1 ser), the decoction is cooled and the water strained through a piece of cloth. The water is then orally administered to influenza patients.	Solanum barbisetum: Kontikari Piper nigrum: Gol morich Cinnamomum tamala: Tejpata Piper longum: Pipul Cinnamomum verum: Daruchini
12	Helminthiasis, piles (hemorrhoids), dysentery	For helminthiasis, one anna (1 anna = 62.5g) amount of powdered seeds of Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don (Apocynaceae) is taken with cold water every morning. For piles, 2/3 anna amount of powdered bark is mixed with honey and taken. For dysentery, whole seeds are boiled in water and the water strained through a piece of cloth and then taken. *Patient report: good results for piles and dysentery.	Holarrhena pubescens: Indrojob, Kurchi (usually the seeds are called kurchi)
13	Filariasis, sexual dysfunction in men, night blindness	For sexual dysfunction in men 50 ml of juice obtained from leaves of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Liliaceae) is put in a steel container, 100 ml ghee (clarified butter) is added and the mixture is boiled over a flame followed by cooling. The decoction is then taken with ½ cup slightly warm cow milk in the morning and evening. Alternately, 1g of powdered roots is taken with sugar. For night blindness, young leaves are fried in a little ghee and taken every morning. For filariasis, 2 teaspoonful of leaf juice is mixed with sugarcane molasses and taken with water in the form of a sherbet.	Asparagus racemosus: Shotabori
14	Underweight	2g of seeds of Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiaceae) are soaked in water with mishri (crystalline sugar) for a whole day and then taken.	Hyptis suaveolens: Tokma
15	Pitto jor (symptoms: burning sensations in the body, redness in eyes, long-term fever with vomiting), rheumatic pain, waist pain	3 tablespoonful of juice obtained from macerated leaves of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Verbenaceae) are taken daily for pitto jor. 15–20 leaves are boiled in water followed by drinking of the water for rheumatic pain and waist pain.	Nyctanthes arbor-tristis: Sheuli
16	Paralysis of any organ of the body	2.5g roots of Passiflora incarnata L. (Passifloraceae) is macerated with black peppers and applied as poultice to paralyzed part.	Passiflora incarnata: Jhumkar gach
17	Helminthiasis, colic pain, flatulence, enlarged heart	2g pulp from seeds of Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (Cucurbitaceae) is macerated and taken in the morning with water on an empty stomach for helminthiasis. Pulp of seeds is dried and burnt and taken with warm water for colic pain. Juice obtained from squeezed fruit is massaged for 10–15 minutes in the stomach area for flatulence. Ripe fruits are cooked as halwa (a cooked dish of Bangladesh) with goat milk and taken for enlarged heart conditions.	Benincasa hispida: Chal kumra
18	Constipation, coughs	Juice obtained from macerated leaves of Cassia sophera L. (Fabaceae) is taken regularly with cold water for constipation. Leaves and stems are boiled in water. The water is strained through a piece of cloth and taken for coughs.	Cassia sophera: Kalo kashunde
19	Abscess, stoppage of urination, insect bite, snake bite, excessive bleeding during menstruation	Leaves of Vitis trifolia L. (Vitaceae) are crushed and applied to the sides of the abscess. Leaves exude a gum or saliva like substance, which helps in cure of the abscess. 40–50g roots are boiled in water till the volume is reduced by half. The water is then strained through a piece of clean and thin cloth. 1 tablespoon ghee (clarified butter) and 1 tablespoon sesame oil is added, and the mixture boiled. Cold cow milk is then added to the decoction. The decoction is then taken for stoppage of urination. Juice obtained from macerated leaves is applied to insect bites. Juice from macerated leaves is immediately applied to snake bites. Juice obtained from macerated roots is taken with cold water and cow milk twice daily for excessive bleeding during menstruation.	Vitis trifolia: Goale lota, Gai goala
20	Skin diseases, fever, abortifacient	For treatment of skin diseases the roots of Nerium indicum Mill. (Apocynaceae) are lightly fried in sesame oil or coconut oil and then applied to affected parts of the skin. A little amount of bark is taken with honey during high fever. 1g powdered root is taken with cold water to induce abortion. *Note that roots are extremely poisonous and should be taken only in small amounts. Following taking of roots, 2 tablespoonful of ghee (clarified butter) is taken to negate the effect of root poisons.	Nerium Nerium indicum: Korobi
21	Epilepsy, gonorrhea, dry coughs	For epilepsy, 4 teaspoonful of juice obtained from fresh leaves of Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. (Fabaceae) is taken with powdered black peppers twice daily for 15–20 days. For gonorrhea, oil obtained from whole plant is applied to the penis. For dry coughs, 2–3 flowers are fried in ghee (clarified butter) and taken.	Sesbania grandiflora: Bock phool
22	Infertility in women, tooth diseases, infections	For infertility, 1g root of Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) Corr. (Rutaceae) is macerated with 7 and quarter cloves of garlic and 7 black peppers. Pills made from the macerated mix are taken thrice daily. For tooth diseases like toothache, stems are used for brushing teeth. For infections, roots are macerated with a small amount of hot peppers and coconut oil and applied.	Glycosmis pentaphylla: Aatimora
23	Low density of semen, abscess, infections of skin	For low density of semen, leaves of Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers (Menispermaceae) are squeezed in water. As a result a dense gum-like juice comes out which is taken. Leaves are rubbed on abscesses or skin infections.	Stephania japonica: Fote pata, Datashi
24	Abscess, dysentery	Roots of Streblus asper Lour. (Moraceae) are macerated in a small amount of water and applied to abscess. 3 teaspoonful of juice obtained from macerated bark is taken thrice daily for dysentery.	Streblus asper: Shaora
25	Abortifacient, leprosy, paralysis	Thoroughly macerated bark of roots of Plumbago indica L. (Plumbaginaceae) is applied to the opening of the vagina to induce abortion. Note that since the bark of root is very poisonous, a small amount of the bark is used. Macerated roots are applied to areas of the body affected by leprosy. 20g of roots are macerated, mixed with mustard oil and applied to paralyzed area twice daily.	Plumbago indica: Rokto chita
26	Antidote to poisoning from ingestion of Datura metel or Datura stramonium plant parts, piles, abscess/infections	To serve as antidote to poisoning from Datura metel or Datura stramonium plant parts, fresh leaves of Oxalis corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae) are collected and juice obtained through maceration. 30 ml of the juice is given to patients, followed by another 30 ml after 3–4 hours. If the patient is unconscious, the procedure is done following regaining consciousness. For piles, leaves are thoroughly fried in an iron pan with sesame oil and ghee (clarified butter) and fed to patients along with the thick layer that forms on sour yogurt. *Note that till cure, eating of beef is not advised. For any abscess/infections, fresh leaves are macerated in warm water and applied as poultice on abscess or infected area.	Oxalis corniculata: Amrul Datura metel: Kalo/Konok Dhutura Datura stramonium: Shada dhutura *Both Datura metel and Datura stramonium are poisonous plants and sometimes fed unknowingly to poison people because of enmity. Kalo means black, while shada means white.
27	Tuberculosis, underweight in children	6g powdered root of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) is taken daily with honey for tuberculosis. 5g powdered root is fed to underweight children with milk or ghee (clarified butter) for 1 month.	Withania somnifera: Ashwogondha
28	To increase libido, burning sensations during urination, hydrocele	Roots of Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae) are mixed with equal amounts of roots of Amaranthus spinosus L. (Amaranthaceae) and Heliotropium indicum L. (Boraginaceae) and macerated. 14 pills are made from the macerated mix. To increase libido, two pills are to be taken on an empty stomach in the morning and night for 7 days. For burning sensations during urination, 1 chatak seeds of Achyranthes aspera are powdered and boiled in water for 15–20 min. Small amounts of the decoction that is formed is taken thrice daily. For hydrocele, 7g of roots of Achyranthes aspera are macerated with 7 slices of rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) and 21 black peppers. The mixture is applied to the swollen scrotum for 7 days as a poultice.	Achyranthes aspera: Apang supang Amaranthus spinosus: Kanta khuira Heliotropium indicum: Hantishur Zingiber officinale: Ada
29	Piles, constriction of nerves leading to distortion in hands or feet, stoppage of urination, paralysis	For piles, 2 teaspoonful of juice obtained from fresh leaves of Paederia foetida L. (Rubiaceae) is taken with macerated rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae). For constriction of nerves, macerated leaves of Paederia foetida are applied to hand or feet along with sesame oil. 3–4 teaspoonfuls of juice obtained from macerated leaves of Paederia foetida is taken with ½ poa raw cow milk for a few days if there is stoppage of urination. 4 teaspoonfuls of juice obtained from macerated leaves of Paederia foetida is taken twice daily for paralysis. At the same time, the juice is applied to the paralyzed area.	Paederia foetida: Gandal, Rajbala Curcuma longa: Holud
30	Sexual weakness in males	1g roots of Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. (Asteraceae) is mixed with leaves of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Umbelliferae), 1g roots of Abroma augusta L.f. (Sterculiaceae), roots of Bombax ceiba L. (Bombacaceae) and boiled in water. Fruits of Croton tiglium L. (Euphorbiaceae) and powdered seed husks of Plantago ovata Forssk. (Plantaginaceae) are then mixed with the decoction, and the decoction taken with ripe bananas, sugar, and cow milk.	Eclipta alba: Kalokeshi Centella asiatica: Thankuni Abroma augusta: Ulot kombol Bombax ceiba: Shimul Croton tiglium: Jaiphol Plantago ovata: Isabgul
31	Lesions on the tongue (white spots on the tongue, difficulty in eating)	4–5 young whole plants of Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae) are mixed with pulp from inner part of seeds of Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae), skin of fruits of Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (Zingiberaceae), small amount of skin of young fruits of Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (Cucurbitaceae). The mixture is macerated and applied to the tongue. Note that during this time eating of the following fish species are forbidden: Wallago attu, Puntius puntius, Channa marulius, and Cirrhenus mrigala.	Ricinus communis: Laal henda, Verenda Mangifera indica: Aam Elettaria cardamomum: Elach Benincasa hispida: Chal kumra
32	Pain	Leaves with roots of Abroma augusta L. (Sterculiaceae) are warmed and applied to painful areas.	Abroma augusta: Ulot kombol
33	Headache, conjunctivitis, bleeding from gums	For headache, wood scrapings of Adenanthera pavonina L. (Fabaceae) are wetted and rubbed onto the forehead. For conjunctivitis, kohl (local term: kajol) made from wood is applied to eyes. To stop bleeding from gums, 6–7 leaves are boiled in water and the water is used for gargling.	Adenanthera pavonina: Rokto chondon
34	Dysentery, appetite stimulant, bleeding from gums, insect bite	For dysentery, 4–5g roots of Cyperus scariosus R. Br. (Cyperaceae) are crushed and boiled in 4 cups water. When the water is reduced, it is strained through a piece of cloth and taken 4 times daily (note that this is claimed to treat stomach pain associated with dysentery). If any food is not digested resulting in constipation, then 3–4g roots of are mixed with ½ teaspoonfuls of fruits of Carum copticum (L.) C.B. Clarke (Umbelliferae), crushed and soaked in 1 cup of warm water. After soaking for 2 hours, the water is strained and taken twice daily. For bleeding from gums, juice obtained from crushed roots of Cyperus scariosus are mixed with a little water and the mixture used for gargling. For bites from insect like wasps, crushed roots of Cyperus scariosus are applied to bitten area.	Cyperus scariosus: Mutho (roots are known locally as vadla mutho) Carum copticum: Joan