Table 3. Application of the phylogenetic novelty index to examples of ecological novelty.
| focal clade | focal ecology (a: niche age*) | nearest species/clade with convergent ecology (b: niche age*) | divergence time* (t) | novelty index* (2t-a-b) | references |
| San Salvador Cyprinodon pupfishes | scale-eater: C. sp. ‘bulldog’ (0.005–0.015‡) | Tanganyikan Perissodus spp. cichlids (1.5–2.2) | 85 | 168 | [44], [73], [77] |
| Lake Chichancanab Cyprinodon pupfishes | piscivore: C. maya (0.008‡) | Orestias cuvieri (0.06–1.5‡) | 21† | 40 | [7], [111]–[113] |
| zooplanktivore: C. simus (0.008‡) | Aphanius anatoliae splendens (5–10‡); Orestias ispi (0.06–1.5‡) | 21† | 32 | ||
| Darwin's finches | blood-feeder: Geospiza difficilis septentrionalis (2–3‡) | oxpecker Buphagus spp. (20–23) | 23 | 20 | [12], [114], [115] |
| seed-eater: Geospiza spp. (2–3‡) | Cocos Island finch Pinaroloxias inornata (1.9–2.4‡) | 2–3‡ | 0 | ||
| Anolis lizards | twig-giant molluscivore: Anolis (Chameleolis) spp. (<15–20†) | Diplolaemus bibroni (?) | 145 | <270 | [116], [117] |
| Guianan Brocchinia bromeliads | carnivory: Brocchinia reducta (<9) | Catopsis berteroniana (<14) | 19 | <15 | [5], [118] |
| ant-plant: Brocchinia acuminata (<9) | Tillandsia butzii (<4) | 19 | <26 | ||
| Bagheera kiplingi | herbivore/ant-plant parasite (?) | Early Devonian arthropods† (398–416: first chelicerate fossil) | 398–416 | <398 | [11], [119] |
| Sawfishes (Schlerorhynchidae and Pristidae) | piscivores with elongated, serrated rostrum: (130†) | Sawsharks (Pristiophoriformes) (72-66†) | 251–374 | 300 | [120]–[122] |
| Tanganyikan Perissodus scale-eating cichlids | scale-eater: Tanganyikan Perissodus spp. (1.5–2.2) | Malawi cichlids: Genyochromis mento, Corematodus spp. (<1–2); Victorian cichlid Haplochromis welcommei (<0.1) | 24 | 44 | [29], [77], [123] |
| Paxton Lake benthic stickleback | Benthivore: (0.01‡) | Enos Lake benthic stickleback (0.01‡) | 0.01 | 0 | [91] |
The novelty index is calculated by subtracting the niche ages of the focal ecology (a) and the most closely related lineage or clade with convergent ecology (b) from the time to the most recent common ancestor of the two convergent ecologies (divergence time, t) times 2 (the amount of time separating the two lineages). Lineage/clade ages and divergence times (in millions of years) were drawn from multiple chronograms, minimum age estimates from the fossil record (†), and geological ages of lake basins (‡) and should therefore be interpreted cautiously. To be conservative, we used ages which minimized the novelty index.
Units in millions of years.
Minimum divergence time or lineage/clade age estimated from earliest known fossil.
Lineage/clade age estimated from geological age of lake basin or archipelago which contains the adaptive radiation.
Lineages with no available age information from time-calibrated phylogenies or fossils.