Figure 1.

The framework of the DDR signaling pathway. Like other signal transduction pathways, the DDR signaling pathway consists of signal sensors, transducers, and effectors. The sensors of this pathway are proteins that recognize DNA structures induced by DNA damage and DNA replication stress. The transducers of this pathway are kinases, including ATM, ATR, and their downstream kinases. The effectors of this pathway are substrates of ATM, ATR, and their downstream kinases. These effectors of ATM and ATR are involved in a broad spectrum of cellular processes that are important for maintenance of genomic stability of organisms.