Table 1.
Disease agents associated with Stomoxys spp.
| Disease agent | Geographic occurrence | Transmission | Association* | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Viruses | ||||
| Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental and natural transmission, isolation | [44, 56, 110] |
| African swine fever virus (ASFV) | Africa, Sardinia (Italy) | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [80] |
| West Nile Fever virus (WNFV) | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental transmission, isolation | [36, 66] |
| Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV) | Africa, Middle East | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [59] |
| Lumpy Skin Disease virus (LSDV) | Africa, Middle East | Mechanical | Experimental transmission, isolation | [22, 68, 80] |
| Bovine Herpes Virus (BHV) | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [49] |
| Bovine Leukosis Virus (BLV) | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [14, 46, 126] |
| Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) | America | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [39] |
| Bacteria | ||||
| Bacillus anthracis | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental and natural transmission | [107, 108] |
| Pasteurella multocida | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [92] |
| Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [127] |
| Francisella tularensis | North America, Europe, northern Africa, Middle East, Asia | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [95, 125] |
| Enterobacter sakazakii | Worldwide | Biological and mechanical | Natural transmission, isolation, and development. | [87] |
| Dermatophilus congolensis | Worldwide | Mechanical | Experimental and natural transmission | [100] |
| Rickettsia | ||||
| Anaplasma marginale | Worldwide (Tropics and subtropics) | Mechanical | Experimental and natural transmission, isolation | [94, 109] |
| Protozoa | ||||
| Trypanosoma evansi | South America, North Africa, Asia, Europe | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [10, 83, 114] |
| Trypanosoma vivax | South America, Africa | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [83] |
| Trypanosoma brucei | Africa | Mechanical | Experimental transmission, isolation | [83, 85] |
| Trypanosoma congolense | Africa | Mechanical | [114] | |
| Besnoitia besnoiti | South America, Europe, Africa, Middle East, Asia | Mechanical | Experimental and natural transmission | [8, 77, 78] |
| Leishmania tropica | North Africa, Middle East, Asia | Mechanical | Experimental transmission | [6] |
| Helminths | ||||
| Habronema microstoma | Worldwide | Biological | Experimental transmission, isolation, and development | [119, 130] |
*
Association between disease agents and stomoxes is described as follows: isolation (agent isolated from stomoxes), development (as if stomoxes were natural intermediate host), experimental transmission (transmission of agent by unnatural mode of infection or to unnatural host), and natural transmission (transmission of agent from one natural host to another by exposure to stomoxes) according to Krinsky (1976) [73].