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. 2011 Jun 22;3(2):2750–2766. doi: 10.3390/cancers3022750

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© 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

This article is an Open Access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

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Figure 2. — AID expression induced by chronic inflammation causes the development of cancer in various gastrointestinal tissues via its mutagenic activity. (a) In hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected liver tissues, both chronic inflammatory stimulation and direct effects of the HCV core protein cause aberrant AID expression via NF-κB activation, leading to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). (b) AID is ectopically expressed in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric epithelial cells via nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation and causes the development of gastric cancer. (c) In the patients with inflammatory bowel disease, AID is upregulated in chronically inflamed colonic epithelial cells not only via the NF-κB pathway, but also via the STAT6 activation pathway and its genotoxicity causes colitis-associated cancer (CAC) development. (d) Aberrant AID expression is induced by chronic cholangitis via NF-κB activation pathway, leading to cholangiocarcinogenesis.