Table 1.

Environmental impacts from aquaculture and key references

Impact category	Activity/life cycle stage	Possible impacts	References
Habitat alteration	Conversion of natural terrestrial lands/wetlands	Biodiversity loss Loss of protection from storms, floods, and erosion Loss of water purification Loss of carbon sequestration Reduced capture fisheries production Loss of wetland products, e.g., wood, seafood, and medicines	Beveridge et al. (1994), Diana (2009) Barbier (2007), Walters et al. (2008) Walters et al. (2008) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), Mcleod et al. (2011) Walters et al. (2008) Moberg and Rönnbäck (2003), Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
	Conversion of cropland	Salinization of soil and fresh water	Primavera (1997), Vandergeest and Flaherty (1999)
Feed	Forage fish fisheries	Overfishing of forage fish for fish meal and fish oil	Naylor et al. (2000), Deutsch et al. (2007), Tacon and Metian (2009)
	Terrestrial feed production	Impacts originating from crop production (e.g., soy and maize) to feed	Foley et al. (2011)
Effluents	Grow out phase	Nutrient leakage Pesticide and disinfectant leakage Antibiotic leakage	Islam (2005) Gräslund et al. (2003), Burridge et al. (2010) Gräslund et al. (2003)
Invasive species	Larvae production and grow out phase	Escapes of non-native species	Beveridge et al. (1994), Lind et al. (2012)
Diseases	Hatchery and grow out phase	Spread of diseases and parasites to wild populations	Toranzo et al. (2005), Krkošek et al. (2007)
Larvae production	Fry and broodstock fisheries	Discarded bycatch and biodiversity concerns	Rönnbäck et al. (2002)
Energy consumption	Consumption throughout lifecycle	Energy consumption throughout the life cycle	Troell et al. (2004), Pelletier et al. (2009)