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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Mar 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Health Econ. 2012 Oct 9;32(2):480–485. doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2012.07.005

Table 3.

Results with alternative personality measures.

Behavior Mean N Coefficient on passing A level
 % Reduction in this coefficient for each specification
Demo
graphics
and
back
ground		 Economic
controls		 Addition to income and background controls
 Economic
controls		 Addition to income and background controls
Cognitive
ability		 Current
and
future
satisfaction		 Persona
lity		 Social
inte
gration		 All
original
factors		 Motiva
tion		 Depression
and
Anxiety		 All
Factors		 Cognitive
ability		 Current
and
future
satisfac
tion		 Persona
lity		 Social
integra
tion		 All
original
factors		 Motiva
tion		 Depression
and
anxiety		 All
factors
Smoking
Current smoker 29% 6752 −0.126***
(0.013)		 −0.100***
(0.014)		 −0.039***
(0.015)		 −0.100***
(0.014)		 −0.095***
(0.014)		 −0.081***
(0.014)		 −0.029**
(0.015)		 −0.039***
(0.014)		 −0.088***
(0.014)		 −0.007
(0.015)		 21% 48% 0% 4% 15% 56% 48% 10% 74%
Former smoker 25% 6752 −0.020
(0.012)		 −0.019
(0.014)		 −0.014
(0.015)		 −0.019
(0.014)		 −0.019
(0.014)		 −0.028**
(0.014)		 −0.020
(0.015)		 0.008
(0.014)		 −0.021
(0.014)		 −0.003
(0.015)		 5% 25% 0% 0% −45% −5% 135% −10% 80%
Quit smoking (ever
smoked only)		 46% 3653 0.099***
(0.021)		 0.077***
(0.022)		 0.031
(0.023)		 0.079***
(0.022)		 0.075***
(0.022)		 0.053**
(0.022)		 0.018
(0.024)		 0.053**
(0.022)		 0.068***
(0.022)		 0.012
(0.024)		 22% 46% −2% 2% 24% 60% 24% 9% 66%
Number of cigarettes
smoked		 17. 0 1673 −1.579***
(0.569)		 −1.276**
(0.595)		 −1.006
(0.642)		 −1.477**
(0.592)		 −1.275**
(0.588)		 −0.957
(0.602)		 −0.886
(0.634)		 −0.823
(0.607)		 −1.263**
(0.602)		 −0.746
(0.642)		 19% 17% −13% 0% 20% 25% 29% 1% 34%
Diet/exercise
BMI 25.9 6588 −0.571***
(0.136)		 −0.684***
(0.148)		 −0.557***
(0.162)		 −0.689***
(0.148)		 −0.642***
(0.148)		 −0.603***
(0.151)		 −0.499***
(0.163)		 −0.637***
(0.152)		 −0.553***
(0.148)		 −0.490***
(0.165)		 −20% 22% −1% 7% 14% 32% 8% 23% 34%
Underweight 1% 6588 0.007**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.003)		 0.009**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.004)		 0.008**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.003)		 0.008**
(0.004)		 −14% −14% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Overweight 52% 6588 −0.075***
(0.014)		 −0.081***
(0.015)		 −0.079***
(0.017)		 −0.082***
(0.015)		 −0.076***
(0.015)		 −0.073***
(0.016)		 −0.072***
(0.017)		 −0.074***
(0.016)		 −0.072***
(0.016)		 −0.070***
(0.017)		 −8% 3% −1% 7% 11% 12% 9% 12% 15%
Obese 15% 6588 −0.039***
(0.010)		 −0.039***
(0.011)		 −0.028**
(0.012)		 −0.040***
(0.011)		 −0.036***
(0.011)		 −0.033***
(0.012)		 −0.025**
(0.012)		 −0.036***
(0.012)		 −0.030***
(0.011)		 −0.026**
(0.013)		 0% 28% −3% 8% 15% 36% 8% 23% 33%
Exercise regularly 75% 6751 0.092***
(0.013)		 0.069***
(0.014)		 0.047***
(0.015)		 0.070***
(0.013)		 0.065***
(0.013)		 0.056***
(0.014)		 0.043***
(0.015)		 0.056***
(0.014)		 0.064***
(0.014)		 0.038**
(0.015)		 25% 24% −1% 4% 14% 28% 14% 5% 34%
Eat fruit every day 53% 6751 0.107***
(0.014)		 0.103***
(0.015)		 0.090***
(0.017)		 0.103***
(0.015)		 0.098***
(0.015)		 0.077***
(0.016)		 0.074***
(0.017)		 0.081***
(0.016)		 0.098***
(0.015)		 0.066***
(0.017)		 4% 12% 0% 5% 24% 27% 21% 5% 35%
Eat vegetables every day 17% 6751 0.032***
(0.011)		 0.018
(0.012)		 0.040***
(0.013)		 0.018
(0.012)		 0.018
(0.012)		 0.013
(0.012)		 0.038***
(0.013)		 0.014
(0.012)		 0.016
(0.012)		 0.034**
(0.013)		 44% −69% 0% 0% 16% −63% 13% 6% −50%
Drinking
Drinker 95% 6752 0.013**
(0.006)		 0.008
(0.007)		 −0.003
(0.007)		 0.008
(0.007)		 0.007
(0.007)		 0.011
(0.007)		 0.003
(0.007)		 0.005
(0.007)		 0.004
(0.007)		 0.002
(0.007)		 38% 85% 0% 8% −23% 38% 23% 31% 46%
Heavy drinker 20% 6752 0.053***
(0.011)		 0.026**
(0.012)		 −0.001
(0.014)		 0.026**
(0.012)		 0.028**
(0.012)		 0.021*
(0.013)		 −0.000
(0.014)		 0.031**
(0.013)		 0.021
(0.013)		 0.003
(0.014)		 51% 51% 0% −4% 9% 49% −9% 9% 43%
Number of drinks in
week		 11.8 5585 −1.119***
(0.399)		 −1.047**
(0.434)		 −1.259***
(0.477)		 −1.030**
(0.434)		 −0.930**
(0.434)		 −0.707
(0.440)		 −0.920*
(0.476)		 −0.124
(0.445)		 −1.078**
(0.438)		 −0.500
(0.479)		 6% −19% 2% 10% 30% 11% 82% −3% 49%
Illegal drugs
Illegal drugs in last 12
months		 8% 6707 0.004
(0.008)		 0.008
(0.008)		 0.008
(0.009)		 0.008
(0.008)		 0.009
(0.008)		 0.004
(0.008)		 0.004
(0.009)		 0.024***
(0.008)		 0.009
(0.008)		 0.012
(0.009)		 −100% 0% 0% −25% 100% 100% −400% −25% −100%
Ever tried illegal drugs 34% 6707 0.070***
(0.013)		 0.069***
(0.014)		 0.057***
(0.015)		 0.070***
(0.014)		 0.074***
(0.014)		 0.056***
(0.014)		 0.050***
(0.015)		 0.118***
(0.014)		 0.073***
(0.014)		 0.076***
(0.015)		 1% 17% −1% −7% 19% 27% −70% −6% −10%
Unweighted percentages
(significant outcomes)		 14% 18% −1% 3% 14% 24% 14% 9% 29%
Unweighted percentages
(original significant
outcomes)		 15% 21% −1% 3% 10% 24% 24% 8% 34%

The sample includes all people who took cognitive tests at all ages. The left side of the table presents the coefficient on a binary indicator for passing the A-level, given each set of controls. The right side of the table presents the % reduction in this coefficient for each specification. Economic controls are compared to just demographics and background controls, while all other % reductions are relative to a specification that includes demographics and background controls and economic controls. Demographic controls include age, sex, race and ethnic dummies. Parental and background measures include height at age 16, birthweight, SES of dad at birth, age 7, age 11 and age 16, marital status and current SES. Three cognitive tests are included: at age 7 (math and drawing), age 11 (reading, math, verbal, non-verbal, and drawing), and age 16 (math and reading comprehension). Current life satisfaction is measured by a 10 point scale based on a question of how good life has turned out so far. Future life satisfaction is a 10 point scale based on where the subject expects themself to be in 10 years. Personality measures include 3 measures of efficacy based on answers to three questions, and the malaise score. Social integration measures include: parents alive, see parents, frequency eat together with family, frequency visit relatives with family, frequency go out together as family, frequency spend holidays together as family, frequency go out alone or with friends, frequency attends religious service. Motivation and depression and anxiety are described in the text. Missing variables were included as zeros, with dummies identifying missing data. Health outcomes are measured at wave 6.

*

Indicates statistical significance at the 10%, 5% and 1% level, respectively.

**

Indicates statistical significance at the 10%, 5% and 1% level, respectively.

***

Indicates statistical significance at the 10%, 5% and 1% level, respectively.