Table 2.

Pharmacological activities attributed to antipeptic ulcer activity of edible fruits and spices used in TIM for the management of this disease.

Plant	Part/extract	Active constituent	Model	Species	Result	Reference
Amygdalus communis	Powdered fruit	—	In vitro	—	Antacid	[10]
	Hull and shell/methanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[11]
	Defatted seed/80% acetone extract and its fractions	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[12]
	Nut/oil	—	Open wound	Rat	Wound healing	[13]
	—	Amygdalin	Ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, gastric secretion and inflammatory agents: TNF-α and NO	[14]
Berberis vulgaris	Fruit/ethanol, methanol and water extract	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[15]
	—	Berberine	In vitro	—	↑NO in intestinal endothelium cell	[16]
	—	Berberine	In vitro	—	Anti-H.  pylori	[17]
	Fruit/water extract	—	—	Broiler chicken	Improvement of intestinal mucosal morphology	[18]
	—	Berberine	Ethanol-induced GU	Mouse	↓GU, ↑eNOS, and ↓iNOS mRNA expressions	[19]
	—	Berberine	Indomethacin-induced small intestinal injury	Mouse	↓Intestinal injury, ↑adenosine of intestinal tissue	[20]
	—	Berberine	Acute toxicity	Mouse	Induction of GU	[21]
Cornus mas	Fruit/methanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[22]
Cornus  controversa, C. macrophylla, and C. walteri	Leaf/methanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[23]
Cucurbita pepo	Seed	Triterpenoids	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[24]
	Ripe fruit pulp/aqueous extract	—	Aspirin-induced GU and DU	Rat	↓GU and DU, ↑mucosal thickness, and ↑alkaline phosphatase enzyme in stomach and duodenum tissue	[25]
	Seed	Triterpenoids	Pyloric ligation-, water immersion stress-, and indomethacin-induced GU	Rat	↓GU in all models, ↓gastric secretion, and ↓free and total acidity of gastric juice	[24]
Cydonia  vulgaris syn. C. oblonga	Pulp, peel, and seed/methanol extracts	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[26]
	Fruits/phenolic extract	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[27]
	Fruits/phenolic extract	—	Ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU	[27]
	Seed/mucilage	—	Toxin-induced skin lesions	Rabbit	Healing activity on toxin-induced lesion	[28]
	Fruits juice/70% ethanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori activity	[29]
Malus domestica	Fruit juice and flavonoids rich extract		In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[30]
	Fruit/methanol extract	Catechin and chlorogenic acid	In vitro	—	↓Gastric endothelial cell injury caused by xanthine-xanthine oxidase and indomethacin, ↑antioxidant activity, and ↓lipid peroxidation	[31]
	Fruit peel/polyphenol-rich extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori, inhibition of H. pylori-caused oxidant and free radical production, and bacterial toxin vacuolation and adhesion to tissues	[32]
	Fruit/juice and flavonoids extract	—	HCl/ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, ↓MPO activity in gastric tissue	[30]
	Fruit/methanol extract	—	Indomethacin-induced PU	Rat	↓PU, ↓lipid peroxidation and oxidative agents in gastric tissue	[31]
	Peel/polyphenol-rich extract	—	H. pylori infection	Mouse	Suppression of H. pylori-associated gastritis, inflammation and MDA levels in gastric tissue	[33]
	Fruit/polyphenol extract	—	Aspirin-induced and pylorus ligation-induced GU	Rat	↓GU in both models, no effect on gastric juice secretion, inhibition of aspirin-induced lipid peroxidation, and ↓COX2 and HB-EGF mRNA and protein over expression	[34]
	Fruit/polyphenol extract	—	Ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↑GU	[35]
Morus alba	—	Cyanidin-3-Oglucoside	In vitro	—	Improvement of endothelial dysfunction	[36]
	Leaf/water and 80% ethanol extracts	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori, antioxidant	[37]
	Fruit/ethyl acetate soluble fraction	—	Stress-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, ↓oxidative stress in tissue	[38]
	Leaf/ethanol extract	—	Ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU	[35]
Myristica fragrans	Seed/methanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[39]
	Aril of seed	Dihydroguaiaretic acid	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[40]
	Aril of seed/acetone extract and its lignans rich fraction	Lignans	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[41]
	Seed	—	Carbachol-induced gastric secretion	Rabbit	↓Gastric secretion, ↓free and total acidity of gastric juice	[42]
	Fruits in a polyherbal formulation	—	Pylorus ligation-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, suppression of gastric hypersecretion	[43]
Myristica  malabarica	Fruit rind/methanol extract	—	Indomethacin-induced GU	Mouse	↑GU healing, ↑PGE2 synthesis, and ↑angiogenesis by ↑pro-angiogenics: VEGF and EGF	[44]
	Fruit rind/methanol extract	—	Indomethacin-induced GU	Mouse	↑Ulcer healing, ↑eNOS and ↓iNOS expressions, and balance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines	[45]
	Fruits rind/methanol extract	Procyanidins	Indomethacin-induced GU	Mouse	↑GU healing, ↑mucin content, and ↓lipid peroxidation and ↑antioxidant activity of gastric tissue	[46]
Myristica andamanica	Leaf/methanol extract	—	Excision wound	Mouse	Wound healing activity	[47]
Oryza sativa	Rice bran/methanol extract	Anthocyanins, α-tocopherol, and γ-oryzanol	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[48]
	Fluid from unpolished and polished raw rice and popularly cooked Japanese rice	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[49]
	Bran oil	—	Stress-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, ↓stress-induced acid secretion, and ↓basal and stimulated acid secretion	[50]
	Cooked fruit	—	Intestinal secretion assay	Guinea pigs	↓Intestinal secretion, ↓response of intestinal crypt cells to cAMP	[51]
	Stored rice bran oil, fresh rice bran diet	—	Pylorus ligated ulcer	Rat	↑Ulcer by stored rice bran oil, ↓ulcer by fresh rice bran diet	[52]
	Rice diet	—	Pylorus ligated ulcer	Rat	↓Gastric secretion, ↓mucin activity, and ↑ulcer severity	[53]
Phoenix dactylifera	Fruit/methanol-water extract	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[54]
	Seed/oil	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[55]
	Fruit and pit/aqueous and ethanol extracts	—	Ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, ↑gastric mucin, ↓histamine in the gastric mucosa, and ↓gastrin in plasma	[56]
Phyllanthus emblica	Fruit	Phenolic compounds	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[57]
	Fruit/ethanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[58]
	Fruit/ethanol extract	—	Excision wound	Rat	↑Wound healing, collagen function improvement, and ↑antioxidant enzymes: SOD, GSH, and GPx	[59]
	Fruit/polar solvent extract	—	Indomethacin-GU	Rat	↓GU, ↑antioxidant activity, and cytoprotective activity: ↑mucus and hexosamine	[60]
	Fruit/gallic acid enriched ethanol extract	—	Indomethacin-induced GU	Mouse	↑GU healing, ↑PGE2, and ↑proangiogenesis factors: VEGF, EGF, von Willebrand Factor VIII, and ↑eNOS/iNOS ratio	[61]
	Fruit/juice and methanol extract	—	Ethanol-, indomethacin-, and histamine-induced GU	Rat	↓GU in all models, ↓intraluminal bleeding, and ↑GSH of mucus	[62]
	Gallic acid enriched ethanol extract		Indomethacin-induced GU	Mouse	↑GU healing, proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines regulation, antioxidant activity, and ↓lipid peroxidation	[63]
Punica granatum	Fruit peel/aqueous extract	—	In vitro	—	↓Acetylcholine-induced contractions, ↓spontaneous movement of the isolated rat ileum	[64]
	Fruit peel/methanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[65]
	Fruit peel/methanol extract	—	Excision wound	Guinea pig	↑Wound healing, ↑collagen, DNA, and tissue proteins	[66]
	Fruit peel/aqueous extract	—	Ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, ↓gastric acidity	[67]
	Fruit peel/methanol extract	—	Aspirin- and ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓GU in both models, ↑catalase, ↑GSH, ↑GPx, ↑SOD, and ↓lipid peroxidation	[68]
	Fruit	Tannins	Water immersion stress-, pylorus ligation-, and intragastric absolute ethanol-induced ulcer	Rat	↓Lipid peroxidation, ↑NO, ↑GPx, ↑SOD in gastric mucosa, and ↑secretion of adherent mucus and free mucus	[69]
Rhus coriaria	Fruit/ethanol extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[70]
	Fruit/aqueous extract	Gallic acid	In vitro	—	Antioxidant activity, ↓oxidative stress, and ↓lipid peroxidation in rat isolated hepatocytes	[71]
	Fruit/methanol extract	—	In vitro	—	↓lipid peroxidation, Antioxidant activity	[72]
Vitis vinifera	Seed/various extract	—	In vitro	—	Antioxidant	[73]
	Fruit skin and seed/various extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[74]
	Fruit/hydroalcoholic extract	—	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[75]
	Fruit juice	Resveratrol	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori	[76]
	Fruit juice	Resveratrol	In vitro	—	Anti-H. pylori, ↓ROS, ↓inflammatory agents, and improvement of gastric mucosal cell morphological changes induced by H. pylori	[77]
	Seed/proanthocyanidin extract	Resveratrol	Acute and chronic water-immersion restraint stress-induced gastric and intestinal oxidative injury	Rat	↓GU and DU, ↓lipid peroxidation, and ↓gastric and duodenal membrane microviscosity	[78]
	Seed/low and high flavanol content extract, procyanidins extract	—	Ethanol/HCl-induced GU	Rat	↓GU, radical scavenging activity, and procyanidins binding ability to stomach surface protein which result in ↑defense activity of gastric membrane	[79]
	Seed/proanthocyanidin rich extract	—	Aspirin- and ethanol-induced GU	Rat	↓Ulcer in both models, ↓lipid peroxidation more than Vit E and Vit C	[80]
	Seed/proanthocyanidin extract	—	Excision wound	Mouse	↑Wound healing, ↑angiogenesis activity and factor: VEGF, and ↑antioxidant function of tissue	[81]
	—	Resveratrol	Aspirin-induced GU	Rat	2 mg/Kg: ↑GU healing, ↓MPO, ↑COX1, ↑PGE2, ↑eNOS, and ↑angiogenesis; 10 mg/Kg: ulcerogenic	[82]

cAMP: adenosine 3′5′-cyclic monophosphate; COX: cyclooxygenase; DU: duodenal ulcer; EGF: epidermal growth factor; eNOS: endothelial NO synthase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: glutathione; GU: gastric ulcer; H. pylori: Helicobacter pylori; HB-EGF: heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor; iNOS: inducible NO synthase; MDA: malondialdehyde; MPO: myeloperoxidase; NO: nitric oxide; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; PU: peptic ulcer; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; and VEGF: vascular EGF.