Table 1.

Electrophysiological and neuroimaging findings consistent with predictive coding.

Prediction violated	Area studied	Neuronal expression of Prediction-error	Study
Learned visual object pairings	Monkey inferotemporal cortex (IT)	Enhanced firing rate	Meyer and Olson, 2011
Natural image statistics	Monkey V1, V2, V3	Enhanced firing rate	Hupé et al., 1998; Bullier et al., 1996; Bair et al., 2003
Repetitive auditory stream	Early human auditory cortex	Enhanced Event Related Potentials (ERPs), enhanced gamma-band power	Garrido et al., 2007, 2009; Todorovic et al., 2011
Coherence of visual form and motion	Human V1, V2, V3, V4, V5/MT	Enhanced BOLD response	Murray et al 2002; Murray et al 2005; Harrison et al., 2007
Audio-visual congruence of speech	Visual and auditory cortex	Gamma-band oscillatory activity	Arnal et al., 2011
Predictability of visual stimuli as a function of attention	Human V1, V2, V3	Enhanced BOLD response when unattended, reduced BOLD when attended	Kok et al., 2011
Hierarchical expectations in auditory sequences	Human temporal cortex	Enhanced Event Related Potentials (ERPs)	Wacongne et al., 2011
Expected repetition (or alternation) of face stimuli	FFA in fMRI, parietal and central electrodes of EEG	Enhanced BOLD response, diminished repetition suppression of ERP	Summerfield et al., 2008, 2011
Apparent motion of visual stimulus	V1	Enhanced BOLD response	Alink et al., 2010