Table.

Bioethics Methods

Method	Definition	Example	N=61	%*
Legal	Uses legal analysis, case law, legal decisions, or specific law/regulations in examining or establishing ethical claims.	‘While American federal and state laws exist to prohibit discrimination within these laws, significant gaps exist that may allow for discrimination against people based on their genetic characteristics. Consider, for example... two pieces of federal legislation, the Americans with Disabilities Act... and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996... [emphasis added]’48	23	38%
Philosophical	Traditionally philosophical tools, such as applied moral theory or conceptual analysis, are used to examine or establish the ethics aims of the article.	‘a variety of reasons could be given for according different moral standing to humans and non-human primates... For Kantians, human capacities for rationality and autonomy demand that persons be treated as ends in themselves. Mill, on the other hand, found an especially fecund source of utility in the richness of human mental life. Singer, although strongly defending equal consideration of non-human interests allows that self awareness affects the ethically allowable treatment of a creature... [emphasis added].’49	20	33%
Argument	Appeal to construction of a set or series of propositions which, taken together, are meant to logically support a conclusion relevant to the ethics aims of the article.	‘This paper argues, firstly, that individuals may have a legitimate interest in not knowing their genetic make up to avoid serious psychological consequences; secondly, that this interest, far from being contrary to autonomy, may constitute an enhancement of autonomy; thirdly, that the right not to know cannot be presumed, but must be “activated” by the individual's explicit choice, and fourthly, that this is not an absolute right... [emphasis added].’50	20	33%
Practice Standards	Appeal to professional norm(s) or practice standard(s) such as codes of ethics, IRB ‘ethics’ regulatory mechanisms, or to research or clinical ‘best practices’.	‘If we extrapolate from the AMA's position, one could conclude that it would be acceptable for a physician to patent a DNA invention, such as diagnostic test, provided that patenting does not limit the availability of the invention to practitioners and patients [emphasis added].’51	18	30%
Casuistry or Case-based	Appeal to relevant paradigm cases to illuminate a moral problem or appropriate response to a case in question.	‘I examine public concerns about genetic information and discuss a few recent cases in some depth to highlight a few of the dilemmas presented by genomics and emerging solutions... [emphasis added].’52	14	23%
Principles	Appeal to one or several ‘prima facie’ normative principles of biomedical ethics (respect for autonomy/persons, nonmaleficence, beneficence and/or justice).	‘This approach is supported by the ethical principle of beneficence, whereby a public health agency has the right to determine that the benefit of a new test for newborns would outweigh the potential disrespect of the autonomy of a minority of parents [emphasis added].’53	13	21%
Historical	A specific account of some past social or cultural event(s) or period(s) of time is presented or appealed to in examining or establishing ethical claims.	‘Although advisory committees always face the danger of being abused for political purposes, perhaps a worse fate is being irrelevant... A look back at these deliberative bodies shows us that they can and have played an important role in enhancing the legitimacy and power of the lay public... difficult moral decisions made in a modern pluralistic society require that all those with a vested interest in the outcome be brought into the discussion at some point... A central lesson from this chronology of national efforts is that there will always be tensions between various factions on issues that we all care about such as those raised by reproductive technologies [emphasis added].’54	8	13%
Feminist	Sex, gender, and/or other socially salient categories are considered in conjunction with power relations in establishing ethical claims or examining ethical concerns.	‘While the research population defined by the investigative team may be local, its membership may not be representative of the broader local community because... age, gender, or socioeconomic status may affect participant recruitment... the voices of those persons in positions of authority and power in the local community may come through more clearly than the perspectives of those lacking such positions [emphasis added].’55	7	11%
Empirical	Either quantitative, qualitative or mixed measurement tools (including: survey, observation, in depth interview, focus group, document studies, and case studies) are used to further the ethics aims of the article.	‘Objective: To increase the awareness among at risk relatives of the availability of genetic testing for a familial disorder while respecting their autonomy and privacy. Methods: ...The main outcome measures were: (A) proportion of unaffected first and second degree relatives of the proband ... whose genetic status was clarified within 2 years of the mutation being identified... and (b) concerns regarding privacy and autonomy voiced [measured by number of complaints] by relatives receiving these letters [emphasis added].’56	6	10%
Theological	Specific religious doctrine(s), point(s) of view, community perspective(s), or text(s) is/are presented, appealed to, or interpreted in examining or establishing ethical claims.	‘Some HPG research and the technologies resulting from it may make it possible to extend human life well beyond the average life span... According to Catholic teaching, human life is not an absolute good. Charity, or friendship with God, is the only absolute good... People committed to the stewardship of scarce resources must be concerned about the products and programs emerging from HGP research. Attempts to extend life may well deplete the resources needed for basic health care.’57 (O'Rourke 2007, p. 219)	5	8%

^*The average number of methods used per publication was 2.2, thus the total for this column is more than 100%.