Fig. 2.

Proviral functions of autophagy-related genes in viral infection. Shown are selected examples of proviral functions of autophagy-related genes and representative viruses that may benefit from such proviral functions. Viruses can exploit autophagy or the autophagy machinery to facilitate their infection. Dengue virus manipulates lipid metabolism for viral replication via lipophagy. Poliovirus utilizes autophagy to promote nonlytic release of virions. HCV employs the autophagy machinery to initiate early viral genome replication and also to conceal viral RNA in autophagosome-like DMVs. Moreover, viruses can exploit autophagy-related proteins in an autophagy-independent manner. For example, MHV employs nonlipidated LC3-I and ER-derived vesicles exporting short-lived ERAD regulators (EDEMosomes) to generate DMVs for viral replication. A cytopathogenic strain of BVDV incorporates an LC3 gene fragment into its genome and utilizes cellular Atg4B to facilitate the processing of the viral polyprotein precursor. CVB3 = Coxsackie virus B3.