Table 1.

Results of a literature survey of studies that address the effects of climate change on the phenological overlap of interacting species

Approach	Interaction
	All	–, −	+, −	+, +
Interpretation of long-term data	98 (59%)	10	76	12
Field observations	9 (5%)	0	8	1
Experimental manipulations	18 (11%)	4	9	5
Simulations and nonmechanistic models	11 (7%)	1	5	5
Mechanistic models	30 (18%)	4	24	2
Total	166	19 (11%)	122 (74%)	25 (15%)

The 82 studies we identified investigated 166 interactions. We categorized each interaction (denoted −, − for competitive; +, − for antagonistic resource–consumer; and +,+ for mutualistic interactions) according to the approach(es) used.