Table 1.
| STUDY | PARTICIPANTS | PRIMARY SEX-SPECIFIC FINDINGS | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fetus | Glynn & Sandman (2012). Sex moderates associations between prenatal glucocorticoid exposure and human fetal neurological development. Developmental Science, 15, 601–610. | 190 Mothers (83 female/107 male fetuses) | Relations between maternal cortisol and fetal response to vibroacoustic stimulation were stronger for females. Among females, maternal cortisol was predictive of fetal behavior in response to stimulation at an earlier age than among males. |
| Neonate | Ellman, Dunkel-Schetter, Hobel, Chicz-Demet, Glynn & Sandman (2008). Timing of fetal exposure to stress hormones: Effects on newborn physical and neuromuscular maturation. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 232–241. | 158 Mothers (80 female/78 male neonates) | The association between fetal exposure to elevated maternal cortisol and placental CRH and delayed neuromuscular development was observed only among male neonates. |
| Infant | Sandman, Glynn, Davis 20131 | 165 Mothers (60 female/65 male infants) | The association between exposures to elevated maternal cortisol early in gestation and impaired cognitive performance at 1-year of age was stronger among males. |
| Sandman, Glynn, Davis 20132 | 221 Mothers (103 female/118 male infants) | Congruence between exposure to maternal depression in the pre and postnatal environments was associated with advanced maturation of motor and mental abilities in 1-year - old infants. Effects were observed at an earlier age among female infants. | |
| Sandman, Glynn, Davis 20133 | 248 Mothers (116 females/ 132 males) | Elevated placental CRH at 25 gestational weeks is associated with more fearful temperament and higher levels of distress behavior among female infants, but not male infants at 2 months of age. | |
| Sandman, Glynn, Davis 20133 | 248 Mothers (116 females/ 132 males) | Increased maternal depressive symptomatology at 25 gestational weeks predicted more fearful temperament during infancy among girls, but not boys. | |
| Grey, Davis, Sandman & Glynn (2012). Human milk cortisol is associated with infant temperament Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 1224–1233. | 52 Mothers (27 female/25 male infants) | The positive association between milk cortisol and fearful infant temperament at 3 months of age was observed only among female infants. | |
| Child | Sandman, Davis, Buss & Glynn (2011). Exposure to prenatal psychobiological stress exerts programming influences on the mother and her fetus. Neuroendocrinology. | 35 Mothers (17 girls/18 boys) | Elevated pregnancy specific anxiety early in pregnancy is associated with reduced gray matter volumes. This effect is seen primarily in girls. |
| Buss C., Davis, EP, Hobel, CJ and Sandman, CA (2011). Maternal pregnancy anxiety is associated with child executive function at 6–9 years age. Stress 14, 665– 676. | 89 Mothers (39 girls/50 boys) | Pregnancy-specific anxiety predicted executive function in girls, but not boys. | |
| Sandman, Glynn, Davis 20134 | 178 Mothers (98 girls/80 boys) | The relation between prenatal maternal cortisol and child anxiety was stronger among girls. | |
| Buss, Davis, Shahbaba, Pruessner, Head & Sandman (2012). Maternal cortisol over the course of pregnancy and subsequent child amygdala and hippocampus volumes and affective problems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109, E1312–1319. | 65 Mothers (35 girls/30 boys) | Reduction in brain volumes in 6–9 year-old children exposed to elevated maternal cortisol early in gestation primarily was observed in girls. | |
| Sandman, Glynn, Davis 20135 | 100 Mothers (49 girls/51 boys) | The association between longer gestation and increased gray matter density is stronger among girls. | |
Data from the following previously published studies were reanalyzed to evaluate sex differences. These new findings are presented in the current manuscript:
Davis & Sandman (2010). The timing of prenatal exposure to maternal cortisol and psychosocial stress is associated with human infant cognitive development. Child Development, 81, 131–148.
sandman, Davis & Glynn LM (2012). Prescient human fetuses thrive. Psychological Science 23, 93–100.
Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Dunkel Schetter, C., Hobel, C., Chjcz-Demet, A., & Sandman, C. A. (2005). Maternal plasma corticotropin-releasing hormone levels during pregnancy are associated with infant temperament Developmental Neuroscience 27, 299–305.
Davis & Sandman (2012). Exposure to prenatal maternal psychobiological stress increases anxiety in preadolescent children Psychoneuroendocrinology 37, 1224–1233.
Davis, Buss, Muftuler, Head, Hasso, Wing, Hobel & Sandman, (2011). Children’s brain development benefits from longer gestation Frontiers in Developmental Psychology 2, 1–7