Figure 2.

Forward simulation of musculoskeletal models. Muscle excitation patterns are used as input, which result in a delayed muscle activity response (activation dynamics). Muscle forces are the result of simulated muscle tendon dynamics, which are typically approximated by a Hill-type contractile element in series with tendon. These muscle forces are used to compute moments of force considering the musculoskeletal geometry. A physics engine is finally used to simulate multibody dynamics which are numerically integrated to generate movement trajectories.