Hypotheses drawn from Stark and Piore	Hypotheses drawn from transnationalism
1a. Immigrants utilize home country reference groups much more strongly than US-based reference groups in making social comparisons.	1b. Immigrants compare themselves simultaneously to those in home countries and to those in the United States in making social comparisons.
2a. Immigrants who have resided in the United States for a longer period of time will rely less on home country reference groups, and more on US-based reference groups, than those who have resided in the United States for a shorter period of time.	2b. Duration of residence in the United States has no meaningful impact on immigrants’ reference groups.
3a. Immigrants’ levels of transnational engagement have no meaningful impact on their reference groups.	3b. Immigrants who have higher transnational involvement will rely even more heavily on home country reference groups than those with lower transnational involvement.