Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2013 Oct 22.
Published in final edited form as: J Trauma Stress. 2012 Jul 16;25(4):384–392. doi: 10.1002/jts.21719

Child Physical Abuse and Adult Mental Health: A National Study

Luisa Sugaya 1, Deborah S Hasin 1,2, Mark Olfson 1,2, Keng-Han Lin 1, Bridget F Grant 3, Carlos Blanco 1,2
PMCID: PMC3805363  NIHMSID: NIHMS517354  PMID: 22806701

Abstract

This study characterizes adults who report being physically abused during childhood, and examines associations of reported type and frequency of abuse with adult mental health. Data were derived from the 2000–2001 and 2004–2005 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, a large cross-sectional survey of a representative sample (N = 43,093) of the U.S. population. Weighted means, frequencies, and odds ratios of sociodemographic correlates and prevalence of psychiatric disorders were computed. Logistic regression models were used to examine the strength of associations between child physical abuse and adult psychiatric disorders adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, other childhood adversities, and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Child physical abuse was reported by 8% of the sample and was frequently accompanied by other childhood adversities. Child physical abuse was associated with significantly increased adjusted odds ratios (AORs) of a broad range of DSM-IV psychiatric disorders (AOR = 1.16–2.28), especially attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and bipolar disorder. A dose-response relationship was observed between frequency of abuse and several adult psychiatric disorder groups; higher frequencies of assault were significantly associated with increasing adjusted odds. The long-lasting deleterious effects of child physical abuse underscore the urgency of developing public health policies aimed at early recognition and prevention.

Beyond immediate risks to physical health (DiScala, Sege, Li, & Reece, 2000), child abuse is associated with compromised mental health throughout the life cycle (Dube et al., 2001, 2003). The estimated annual national cost of child abuse exceeds $100 billion (Wang & Holton, 2007). In 2009, U.S. state and local child protective services estimated that 702,000 children were victims of maltreatment (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System [NCANDS], 2010). The National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence suggests that this number may be as high as 1 in 10 children (Finkelhor, Turner, Ormrod, & Hamby, 2009).

Child physical abuse (CPA) is the second most common form of child maltreatment (NCANDS, 2010), being reported by 8% of the U.S. adult population (Green et al., 2010). The deleterious effects of CPA on later mental health have been extensively recognized. A history of CPA has been associated with an increased risk of suicide attempts (Dube et al., 2001), emotional and behavioral problems (Flisher et al., 1997; Lansford et al., 2002), and several psychiatric disorders, including major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and substance use disorders (Flisher et al., 1997; Silverman, Reinherz, & Giaconia, 1996). The interpretation of these findings, however, has been limited by methodological constraints.

The importance of including other types of maltreatment and comorbid psychiatric disorders in analyses of the effect of child maltreatment on mental health to avoid overestimated associations or overly narrow interpretations has been highly underscored (Green et al., 2010). Co-occurring childhood adversities are common and affect 34%–95% of maltreated children (Dong et al., 2004; Edwards, Holden, Felitti, & Anda, 2003). Therefore, little is known regarding whether the impact of CPA on the risk of developing specific psychiatric disorders is independent or mediated by other childhood adversities and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, whether the frequency or the severity of CPA contributes to increased risk of psychiatric disorders in adulthood is also unknown. A third question that remains unanswered is whether CPA increases the risk of selected psychiatric disorders or has a nonspecific effect on risk across a wide range of disorders.

We sought to address these and related important gaps in knowledge by assessing CPA in relation to adult psychiatric morbidity drawing on data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), a large, nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. This survey included psychometrically sound measures of a broad range of psychiatric disorders. In the current study, our specific goals were to (a) assess sociodemographic correlates of adults who reported being physically abused during childhood, (b) examine the effects of different types of CPA and frequency of assault on later mental health, (c) determine the co-occurrence of other childhood adversities in adults with a history of CPA, and (d) investigate associations of CPA with psychiatric disorders.

Method

NESARC Sample

The NESARC drew a nationally representative sample of the U.S. adult population. The NESARC target population was noninstitutionalized individuals aged 18 years and older in the civilian population residing in households and group living quarters including residents of the continental United States, District of Columbia, Alaska, and Hawaii. Blacks, Hispanics, and young adults (18–24 years old) were oversampled.

The survey was conducted in two waves: 2001–2002 and 2004–2005. Wave 1 included 43,093 face-to-face interviews, yielding an overall response rate of 81% (Grant, Dawson, & Hasin, 2001; Grant, Moore, Shepard, & Kaplan, 2003). Wave 2 used similar methods and sought reinterviews with all Wave 1 subjects. Excluding individuals who were ineligible (e.g., deceased), the response rate in Wave 2 was 87% (n = 34,653; Grant, Kaplan, Moore, & Kimball, 2007).

Measures

Sociodemographic measures

Sociodemographic measures included age, sex, race-ethnicity, nativity, marital status, education, place of residence (urban or rural area), region of the country, and type of health insurance.

Psychiatric diagnoses

All psychiatric diagnoses were made according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) using the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-DSM-IV Version (AUDADIS-IV), a reliable and valid diagnostic interview designed to be used by lay professional interviewers (Grant et al., 2001).

Three groups comprised the Axis I diagnoses: (a) substance use disorders (including alcohol abuse and dependence, drug abuse and dependence, and nicotine dependence), (b) mood disorders (including major depressive disorder, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder), and (c) anxiety disorders (including panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, specific phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and PTSD).

Histories of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder were assessed on a lifetime basis. Suicide attempts were assessed only among individuals who screened into the major depressive episode module by reporting having been sad, blue, depressed, or having a period that they did not care about things that they usually enjoyed for at least 2 weeks. In those cases, suicide attempt was computed for those who reported having attempted suicide during that period.

The test-retest reliability of AUDADIS-IV diagnoses range from good to excellent and are comparable to the ones observed in treated samples using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS), World Health Organization’s Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WHO-CIDI) and University of Michigan-Composite International Diagnostic Interview (UM-CIDI; Grant et al., 2003; Ruan et al., 2008).

Child abuse and trauma

In Wave 2 of the NESARC, all respondents were asked about childhood adversities that occurred in their first 17 years of life. All the questions were adapted from the Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACE study; Dube et al., 2001, 2003) and were originally part of an extensive battery of questions from the Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (Bernstein et al., 1994). For each question, the response categories assessed were never, almost never, sometimes, fairly often, and very often.

In accord with the ACE study, CPA was considered present when the respondent reported being pushed, grabbed, shoved, slapped, or hit fairly often or very often; or having been hit so hard that they had marks, bruises or were injured sometimes, fairly often, or very often, by parents or adults living in their homes.

In our analyses, we also incorporated variables for other childhood adversities that have been consistently associated with CPA and psychological distress later in life (Dong et al., 2004; Edwards et al., 2003; Green et al., 2010; Hildyard & Wolfe, 2002). These included (a) history of child sexual abuse and neglect, (b) parental psychopathology (including parental alcohol and drug use, parental mental illness that required hospitalization, parental incarceration, parental suicide, and witnessed domestic violence), and (c) perceived parental support, described elsewhere as emotional neglect when reverse coded (Dube et al., 2003). The questions used to construct each variable are detailed elsewhere (Ruan et al., 2008).

Data Analysis

The NESARC data were weighted to reflect design characteristics of the NESARC and account for oversampling. Adjustment for nonresponse across sociodemographic characteristics and the presence of any lifetime Wave 1 NESARC substance use disorder or other psychiatric disorder was performed at the household and person levels for Wave 2. Weighted data were then adjusted on socioeconomic variables based on the 2000 decennial census to be representative of the United States civilian population (Grant et al., 2007).

Weighted means, frequencies, and odds ratios (ORs) of sociodemographic correlates, and prevalence of lifetime and current psychiatric disorders were computed. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) derived from multiple logistic regressions with CPA as the predictor variable and each psychiatric disorder as the outcome were calculated using two different models. The first included sociodemographic characteristics and other adverse childhood experiences. The second additionally included number of lifetime psychiatric comorbidities. In addition, doseresponse relationships between frequency of different types of CPA and risk of psychiatric disorders were computed. For these analyses, the response categories fairly often and very often were collapsed into a single category (often) to reduce the number of sparse cells, improve statistical power, and increase stability of the estimates. For all analyses, ORs were considered significant if their 95% CIs did not include 1.0.

Results

Prevalence of CPA and Other Abuse

A history of CPA was reported by 8% of the sample. Child physical abuse was significantly more likely to occur among females than males, U.S.-born individuals than respondents born elsewhere, and among Native American, Black, and Hispanic individuals relative to non-Hispanic White persons. Respondents with a history of CPA were also more likely to be widowed, separated, or divorced than currently married, to have attained lower rather than higher educational achievement, and to have public rather than private insurance. There were no significant differences regarding the occurrence of CPA among urban or rural populations and between different regions of the United States (see Table 1).

Table 1. Sociodemographic Characteristics for Those With and Without Physical Abuse as a Child.

CPA (n = 3,097)
 No CPA (n = 31,287)
Variable % 95% CI % 95% CI OR 95% CI
Sex
 Men 45.77 [43.63, 47.94] 48.13 [47.45, 48.81] 0.91 [0.83, 0.99]
 Womena 54.23 [52.06, 56.37] 51.87 [51.19, 52.55] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
Race/ethnicity
 Whitea 65.94 [62.66, 69.07] 71.45 [68.24, 74.45] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
 Black 14.69 [12.77, 16.84] 10.70 [9.45, 12.10] 1.49 [1.31, 1.68]
 Asian 2.73 [1.91, 3.89] 4.36 [3.43, 5.53] 0.68 [0.52, 0.89]
 Native American 4.24 [3.37, 5.31] 2.00 [1.69, 2.37] 2.30 [1.84, 2.86]
 Hispanic 12.40 [9.97, 15.32] 11.49 [9.31, 14.11] 1.17 [1.01, 1.35]
Nativity
 US-borna 88.08 [85.16, 90.48] 86.06 [83.06, 88.59] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
 Foreign-born 11.92 [9.52, 14.84] 13.94 [11.41, 16.94] 0.84 [0.71, 0.98]
Marital status
 Married /cohabitinga 63.35 [61.32, 65.33] 63.88 [62.86, 64.88] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
 Widowed / separated / divorced 23.90 [22.24, 25.64] 18.36 [17.81, 18.92] 0.31 [1.18, 1.46]
 Never married 12.76 [11.37, 14.29] 17.76 [16.83, 18.73] 0.72 [0.62, 0.84]
Education
 < HS 17.92 [16.09, 19.91] 13.60 [12.73, 14.52] 1.38 [1.21, 1.58]
 HS graduate 22.55 [20.58, 24.66] 23.91 [23.00, 24.84] 0.99 [0.88, 1.11]
 Some post HSa 59.53 [57.13, 61.88] 62.49 [61.31, 63.66] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
Urbanicity
 Rural 15.90 [14.03, 17.96] 16.34 [15.27, 17.46] 0.97 [0.85, 1.10]
 Urbana 84.10 [82.04, 85.97] 83.66 [82.54, 84.73] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
Region
 Northwest 18.23 [15.47,21.36] 17.76 [15.54, 20.22] 1.00 [0.86, 1.17]
 Midwest 19.39 [16.45, 22.70] 18.44 [16.36, 20.72] 1.03 [0.88, 1.19]
 South 36.49 [32.48, 40.70] 38.54 [35.50,41.67] 0.92 [0.81, 1.05]
 Westa 25.89 [23.27, 28.68] 25.26 [23.43, 27.19] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
Insurance
 Privatea 70.95 [68.91, 72.90] 78.19 [76.97, 79.36] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
 Public 15.04 [13.45, 16.79] 10.45 [9.78, 11.16] 1.59 [1.38, 1.83]
 None 14.01 [12.53, 15.63] 11.36 [10.57, 12.20] 1.36 [1.17, 1.57]
Open in a new tab

Note. CPA = Child physical abuse; CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio; HS = high school.

a

Reference group.

There was a dose-response relationship between frequency of CPA and risk of psychiatric disorder across all examined categories of CPA and groups of disorders. The strongest association was with suicide attempt. The pattern and magnitudes of ORs were similar across less and more severe CPA (see Table 2).

Table 2. Associations Between Type and Frequency of Child Physical Abuse and Lifetime Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders.

Any mood disorder
 Any anxiety disorder
 Any substance use disorder
 Any suicide attempt
Type of physical abuse N OR 95% CI OR 95% CI OR 95% CI OR 95% CI
Push, grab, shove, slap, or hit
 Never 22,572 1.00 [1.00, 1.00] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
 Almost never 5,793 1.42 [1.26, 1.60] 1.56 [1.42, 1.71] 1.56 [1.42, 1.72] 1.59 [1.26, 2.00]
 Sometimes 4,363 2.17 [1.94, 2.42] 2.19 [1.99, 2.41] 1.92 [1.75,2.12] 2.33 [1.86, 2.92]
 Oftena 1,674 4.45 [3.85, 5.16] 4.68 [4.11, 5.32] 2.73 [2.41, 3.10] 8.60 [6.94, 10.66]
Hit hard enough to have marks or injured
 Never 28,872 1.00 [1.00, 1.00] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00] 1.00 [1.00, 1.00]
 Almost never 2,819 2.03 [1.76, 2.34] 1.96 [1.76, 2.19] 1.78 [1.57,2.01] 2.53 [2.00, 3.20]
 Sometimes 1,760 2.85 [2.43, 3.35] 2.79 [2.41, 3.23] 2.13 [1.86,2.43] 4.58 [3.52, 5.97]
 Oftena 948 4.84 [4.06, 5.77] 5.28 [4.51, 6.18] 2.87 [2.44, 3.38] 9.42 [7.43, 11.95]
Open in a new tab

Note. CI = Confidence interval; OR = odds ratio.

a

Categories fairly often and very often collapsed into the single category.

Adults who reported a history of CPA were frequently exposed to child sexual abuse and neglect (79%), and parental psychopathology (76%) before age 18 years. They were significantly more likely to have experienced both adverse events, and reported significantly lower rates of perceived parental support when compared with their non-CPA counterparts (see Table 3).

Table 3. Other Childhood Adversities Among Individuals With and Without History of Child Physical Abuse.

CPA (n = 3,097)
 Non-CPA (n = 31,287)
Variable % 95% CI % 95% CI OR 95% CI
History of child sexual abuse and neglect 79.41 [77.51, 81.20] 31.27 [30.41, 32.15] 8.48 [7.55, 9.51]
Parental psychopathologya 76.25 [74.30, 78.10] 28.98 [28.13,29.83] 7.87 [7.05, 8.78]
Perceived family support 89.55 [88.17, 90.78] 98.59 [98.32, 98.82] 0.12 [0.10,0.15]
Open in a new tab

Note. CPA = child physical abuse; CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio.

a

Parental psychopathology included parental alcohol and drug use, parental mental illness that required hospitalization, parental incarceration, parental suicide and witnessed domestic violence.

Lifetime Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders

A majority of victims of CPA had a lifetime history of at least one psychiatric disorder (84%; SE = 0.88). Individuals with CPA had higher overall prevalence of psychiatric disorders and higher rates of suicide attempts than individuals without CPA. With the exception of alcohol abuse and conduct disorder, the results remained significant after including sociodemographic characteristics and other childhood adversities in the model. After additionally including lifetime psychiatric comorbidities, several disorders remained significantly associated with CPA, including in descending order of strength of association: ADHD, PTSD, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, drug abuse, nicotine dependence, generalized anxiety disorder, and major depressive disorder (Table 4).

Table 4. Associations Between Child Physical Abuse and Lifetime Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders.

CPA
(n = 3,097)
 No CPA
(n = 31,287)
 Unadjusted odds ratio
 Adjusted for
sociodemographic
characteristics
 Adjusted for
sociodemographic
characteristics and
psychiatric
comorbidities
Variable % SE % SE OR 95% CI AOR a 95%CI AOR b 95% CI
Any Axis I disorder 83.85 0.88 61.44 0.71 3.26 [2.85, 3.73] 2.06 [1.78, 2.38] 2.06 [0.78, 2.38]
Any substance disorders 62.50 1.29 43.69 0.78 2.15 [1.95, 2.37] 1.61 [1.44, 1.80] 1.33 [1.19, 1.49]
Nicotine dependence 38.42 1.19 21.80 0.51 2.24 [2.04, 2.46] 1.65 [1.49, 1.84] 1.22 [1.09, 1.37]
Any alcohol use disorder 47.04 1.19 33.50 0.76 1.76 [1.60, 1.94] 1.40 [1.26, 1.56] 1.02 [0.91, 1.14]
Alcohol abuse 21.40 0.96 19.14 0.52 1.15 [1.03, 1.29] 1.02 [0.91, 1.15] 1.08 [0.96, 1.22]
Alcohol dependence 25.65 0.99 14.36 0.38 2.06 [1.85, 2.28] 1.54 [1.37, 1.73] 1.13 [0.99, 1.29]
Any drug use disorder 24.27 1.08 10.92 0.33 2.61 [2.33, 2.93] 1.79 [1.57, 2.05] 1.24 [1.07, 1.44]
Drug abuse 19.97 0.98 9.28 0.29 2.44 [2.16, 2.76] 1.74 [1.51, 2.01] 1.24 [1.07, 1.45]
Drug dependence 8.66 0.68 2.90 0.16 3.17 [2.64, 3.81] 1.79 [1.46,2.18] 1.02 [0.81, 1.28]
Any mood disorder 46.84 1.12 22.04 0.39 3.12 [2.83, 3.43] 1.96 [1.76, 2.19] 1.41 [1.25, 1.60]
MDD 27.53 1.11 15.46 0.30 2.08 [1.85, 2.33] 1.46 [1.27, 1.66] 1.16 [1.00, 1.34]
Dysthymia 7.03 0.54 3.11 0.12 2.36 [1.95, 2.85] 1.47 [1.16, 1.85] 0.99 [0.77, 1.28]
Bipolar disorder 18.30 0.87 5.89 0.19 3.58 [3.14, 4.07] 2.07 [1.79, 2.39] 1.48 [1.26, 1.74]
Any anxiety disorder 52.90 1.11 27.40 0.51 2.98 [2.70, 3.28] 1.99 [1.78, 2.22] 1.56 [1.38, 1.77]
Panic disorder 17.33 0.85 6.52 0.20 3.01 [2.65, 3.42] 1.98 [1.71, 2.29] 1.30 [1.08, 1.56]
Social anxiety disorder 13.81 0.78 6.41 0.22 2.34 [2.02, 2.70] 1.46 [1.25, 1.71] 0.90 [0.75, 1.07]
Specific phobia 25.18 1.01 14.27 0.37 2.02 [1.81, 2.26] 1.49 [1.31, 1.69] 1.04 [0.91, 1.20]
GAD 18.24 0.92 6.72 0.22 3.10 [2.71, 3.54] 1.96 [1.66, 2.30] 1.25 [1.03, 1.53]
PTSD 25.98 0.99 8.05 0.23 4.01 [3.54, 4.54] 2.08 [1.80, 2.41] 1.55 [1.32, 1.84]
Pathological gambling 1.10 0.22 0.36 0.04 3.11 [1.97, 4.92] 2.22 [1.31, 3.76] 1.47 [0.83,2.61]
Psychotic disorder 6.34 0.54 2.91 0.18 2.26 [1.83, 2.79] 1.69 [1.35, 2.13] 1.27 [1.00, 1.61]
ADHD 9.35 0.73 1.90 0.10 5.32 [4.36, 6.50] 3.09 [2.40, 3.96] 2.28 [1.75,2.97]
Conduct disorder 1.89 0.35 0.96 0.08 1.99 [1.34, 2.94] 1.37 [0.91, 2.07] 1.19 [0.77, 1.83]
Suicide attempt 9.95 0.67 2.08 0.10 5.21 [4.35, 6.23] 2.48 [2.03, 3.02] 1.57 [1.26, 1.96]
Open in a new tab

Note. CPA = Child physical abuse; CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio; AOR = adjusted odds ratio; MDD = major depressive disorder; GAD = generalized anxiety disorder; PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder; ADHD = attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

a

Adjusted for age, sex, race-ethnicity, nativity, marital status, education, place of residence, region of the country, health insurance, history of child sexual abuse and neglect, parental psychopathology, and perceived family support.

b

Adjusted for age, sex, race-ethnicity, nativity, marital status, education, place of residence, region of the country, health insurance, history of child sexual abuse and neglect, parental psychopathology, perceived family support, and lifetime psychiatric comorbidities.

Discussion

In a large nationally representative sample of adults, we found that 8% of respondents had a history of CPA. It was frequently accompanied by other types of abuse, and independently increased the odds of several psychiatric disorders in adulthood. Our data are consistent with previous studies that have documented high rates of CPA and co-occurrence with other types of abuse (Green et al., 2010). A novel finding of our study, of particular clinical relevance and potential importance for secondary prevention initiatives, was the clear dose-response relationship between frequency of CPA and risk of several psychiatric disorders in adulthood.

This dose-response relationship occurred across a range of types of abuse and adult psychiatric disorder groups. Frequency of abuse may be an important marker of severity (Manly, Cicchetti, & Barnett, 1994). It may also indicate a more disrupted or disturbed environment that includes an increased risk of other forms of abuse (Bolger & Patterson, 2001). In terms of enduring consequences, the experience of physical abuse per se may be more important than the specific type of physical abuse (McGee, Wolfe, & Wilson, 1997), leading different types of assault to generate similar stress reactions. Even types of physical abuse that seem to be less severe from a physical perspective may, if they occur repeatedly, have substantial adverse consequences on later mental health.

In accord with the literature (Dong et al., 2004; Edwards et al., 2003), a majority of CPA victims also reported childhood sexual abuse, neglect, or parental psychopathology; and comparatively few received parental support. Although the literature has suggested a subadditive effect for childhood adversities (Green et al., 2010), even after adjusting for other childhood adversities, CPA was significantly associated with several psychiatric disorders, suggesting an independent effect of CPA on mental health. Chronic stress associated with CPA may disturb key developmental stages and put the child in a vicious cycle of social incompetence, lack of support, risky health behaviors, revictimization, and cognitive impairment (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005).

Consistent with previous studies (Green et al., 2010), the loss of some significant results after adjusting for psychiatric comorbidity suggests that part of the effect of CPA on mental health is nonspecific and mediated through other disorders. These findings are in accord with the hypothesis that the association between maltreatment and psychiatric disorders may be mediated through latent internalizing and externalizing dimensions rather than through specific disorders (Keyes et al., 2011). Furthermore, the stronger associations, in both adjusted models, of CPA with ADHD, PTSD, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, nicotine dependence, generalized anxiety disorder, drug abuse, and major depressive disorder, might mean a primary relationship and raises the possibility that these disorders may in some respects share common etiological pathways. Candidate common pathological pathways could include impaired development of the hippocampus, which is crucial for learning and memory consolidation; disrupted functioning of prefrontal cortex inhibitory activity, which is essential for behavioral regulation; and increased activity of amygdala-related circuitry, which is involved in rapid emotional response (Arnsten, 2009; Lupien et al., 1998; Lupien, McEwen, Gunnar, & Heim, 2009). Animal and human studies have demonstrated the deleterious effects of stress on these structures during sensitive developmental periods, such as prenatal period, early childhood, and adolescence (Andersen & Teicher, 2008). These long-term adverse effects of CPA could be mediated by glucocorticoid activity on steroid receptors expressed throughout the brain. Glucocorticoids exert an important role on brain maturation by initiating terminal maturation, contributing to remodeling of axons and dendrites and influencing cell survival (Meyer, 1983). Thus, the deleterious effect of chronic stress may be at least in part a consequence of the effect of physiological mechanisms of stress response that may influence other biological, psychological, and social-contextual aspects of normal and abnormal development.

If these alterations in the central nervous system actually occur, they could lead to deficits in attention regulation, impulsive behavior, abnormal fear response, and memory consolidation, which could increase individual vulnerability to psychiatric disorders (Arnsten, 2009). The susceptibility to a specific psychiatric disorder may be then influenced by the interaction of several variables, including timing of abuse, sex and gender, parenting quality, and social support (Lupien et al., 2009). Genetic features may also modulate children’s exposure to environmental insults or their sensitivity to the insults once they are experienced. Gene–environment interaction studies have linked genetic characteristics and childhood adversities with ADHD (Laucht et al., 2007), PTSD (Nelson et al., 2009), externalizing disorders (Hicks, South, Dirago, Iacono, & McGue, 2009), and major depression (Caspi et al., 2003). Some of these results, however, are still controversial as suggested by a recent meta-analysis that found no significant association between the serotonin transporter gene 5-HTTLPR, stressful life events, and risk for depression (Risch et al., 2009). Future studies are still necessary to replicate these findings.

The stronger association of CPA with ADHD than with other Axis I psychiatric disorders could be related to the early onset of symptoms and highlights the impact of CPA during childhood. It could also be due to a bidirectional relationship, in which ADHD may contribute to stressful home environments that in turn provoke chronic use of violence and later onset of other psychiatric disorders. Lower self-confidence, less warmth, and use of physical discipline have been described in parents of children with ADHD (Alizadeh, Applequist, & Coolidge, 2007). These findings underscore the importance of providing support not only to the child with ADHD but also to the parents. There is some evidence that parenting quality may affect the course of inattention and hyperactive/impulsivity symptoms of children with ADHD (Linares et al., 2010).

In comparison to previous data, we found a lower prevalence of ADHD in both CPA and non-CPA populations. These results may have occurred due to underrecognition of the symptoms by the respondents during their childhood. Studies based on adolescents’ self-report have also observed lower prevalence of ADHD when compared to parent and teacher evaluations (Barkley, Anastopoulos, Guevremont, & Fletcher, 1991).

Although our study cannot provide definite proof of the independent effect of CPA on mental health, it has been suggested that different forms of child maltreatment may affect the central nervous system differentially. Some neuroimaging studies have found that different forms of abuse affect different regions of the brain (Choi, Jeong, Rohan, Polcari, & Teicher, 2009; Tomoda et al., 2009). Future studies comparing different types of child maltreatment may help us clarify this issue.

Potential long-term adverse effects of CPA support public health policies aimed at early recognition and prevention. Consistent data regarding the recognition of CPA and existing screening tools, however, are still lacking. According to a recent meta-analysis, improving the clinical screening is likely to be more useful than the use of protocols, except where pediatrics expertise is minimal (Woodman et al., 2008). Additionally, recognizing signs and symptoms of traumatic stress is also essential to identify abused children (Stirling & Amaya-Jackson, 2008). Few CPA victims look for medical care due to injuries directly related to physical aggression. The need to train child health care professionals on child maltreatment (Dubowitz, Feigelman, Lane, & Kim, 2009) and mental health (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2009) is widely acknowledged. Partnership between pediatricians, mental health specialists, social workers, and other professionals that deal directly with children may have positive effects (Dubowitz et al., 2009). Furthermore, recognizing adverse childhood experiences as a complex event may be a key aspect of devising comprehensive interventions to prevent their occurrence and limit their impact.

Several methodological limitations constrain the interpretation of our findings. First, the retrospective assessment of CPA may result in recall bias. Because false-negatives may be more common than false-positives, however, reported associations between CPA and adult psychiatric disorder may be biased to-wards the null (Hardt & Rutter, 2004), but we cannot establish that for our data. Second, the cross-sectional design limits the validity of causal inferences regarding the effects of CPA on mental health. Third, although we adjusted for several sociode-mographic characteristics and other types of child abuse, some findings may be attributed to unmeasured intervening variables such as age of abuse, psychological abuse surrounding CPA, and other forms of violence. Fourth, suicide attempts were assessed only among those who screened into the major depressive episode module. The number of individuals who do not screen into the depression section in the AUDADIS and report a suicide attempt is very low, however, and is therefore unlikely to change the pattern of results (Baca-Garcia et al., 2008).

Despite these limitations, our results suggest that, in addition to a nonspecific adverse effect on mental health, CPA has an independent effect on the risk of several psychiatric disorders, especially ADHD, PTSD, and bipolar disorder. The wide range of psychiatric disorders associated with CPA emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive psychiatric assessment of CPA victims and the need to screen for CPA in individuals with psychiatric disorders. Preventing child physical abuse is an essential step to reduce childhood suffering and improve adult mental health.

Acknowledgments

Views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and should not be construed to represent views of any of the sponsoring organizations, agencies, or the U.S. government. The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions was sponsored by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and funded, in part, by the Intramural Program, NIAAA, National Institute of Health. This study is supported by NIH grants DA019606, DA020783, DA023200, MH076051, and MH082773 (Dr. Blanco), P60 MD000206 (Dr. Olfson), K05AA00161, and U01AA018111 (Dr. Hasin); the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (Dr. Blanco); and the New York State Psychiatric Institute (Drs. Blanco, Hasin, and Olfson).

References

  1. Alizadeh H, Applequist KF, Coolidge FL. Parental self-confidence, parenting styles, and corporal punishment in families of ADHD children in Iran. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2007;31:567–572. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.005. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. American Academy of Pediatrics Policy statement—The future of pediatrics: Mental health competencies for pediatric primary care. Pediatrics. 2009;124:410–421. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-1061. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-1061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: 1994. Author. [Google Scholar]
  4. Andersen SL, Teicher MH. Stress, sensitive periods and maturational events in adolescent depression. Trends in Neuroscience. 2008;31:183–191. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2008.01.004. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.01.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Arnsten AF. Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2009;10:410–422. doi: 10.1038/nrn2648. doi:10.1038/nrn2648. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Baca-Garcia E, Blanco C, Grant BF, Hasin DS, Keyes KM, Oquendo MA, Perez-Rodriguez MM. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in the United States: 1991-1992 and 2001-2002. Molecular Psychiatry. 2008;15:250–259. doi: 10.1038/mp.2008.98. doi:10.1038/mp.2008.98. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Barkley RA, Anastopoulos AD, Guevremont DC, Fletcher KE. Adolescents with ADHD: Patterns of behavioral adjustment, academic functioning, and treatment utilization. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1991;30:752–761. doi: 10.1016/s0890-8567(10)80010-3. doi:10.1016/S0890-8567(10)80010-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bernstein DP, Fink L, Foote J, Handelsman L, Lovejoy M, Ruggiero J, Wenzel K. Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1994;151:1132–1136. doi: 10.1176/ajp.151.8.1132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bolger KE, Patterson CJ. Developmental pathways from child maltreatment to peer rejection. Child Development. 2001;72:549–568. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00296. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Craig IW, Harrington H, Poulton R. Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science. 2003;301:386–389. doi: 10.1126/science.1083968. doi:10.1126/science.1083968. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Choi J, Jeong B, Rohan ML, Polcari AM, Teicher MH. Preliminary evidence for white matter tract abnormalities in young adults exposed to parental verbal abuse. Biological Psychiatry. 2009;65:227–234. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.06.022. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.06.022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cicchetti D, Toth SL. Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2005;1:409–438. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. DiScala C, Sege R, Li G, Reece RM. Child abuse and unintentional injuries: A 10-year retrospective. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2000;154:16–22. doi:10-1001/pubs.Pediatr Adolesc Med. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Dong M, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Williamson DF, Thompson TJ, Giles WH. The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2004;28:771–784. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Dube SR, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, Williamson DF, Giles WH. Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and the risk of attempted suicide throughout the life span: Findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;286:3089–3096. doi: 10.1001/jama.286.24.3089. doi:10.1001/jama.286.24.3089. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Dube SR, Felitti VJ, Dong M, Chapman DP, Giles WH, Anda RF. Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Pediatrics. 2003;111:564–572. doi: 10.1542/peds.111.3.564. doi:10.1542/peds.111.3.564. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Dubowitz H, Feigelman S, Lane W, Kim J. Pediatric primary care to help prevent child maltreatment: The Safe Environment for Every Kid (SEEK) Model. Pediatrics. 2009;123:858–864. doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-1376. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1376. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Edwards VJ, Holden GW, Felitti VJ, Anda RF. Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: Results from the adverse childhood experiences study. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2003;160:1453–1460. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1453. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Finkelhor D, Turner H, Ormrod R, Hamby SL. Violence, abuse, and crime exposure in a national sample of children and youth. Pediatrics. 2009;124:1411–1423. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-0467. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0467. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Flisher AJ, Kramer RA, Hoven CW, Greenwald S, Alegria M, Bird HR, Moore RE. Psychosocial characteristics of physically abused children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 1997;36:123–131. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199701000-00026. doi:10.1097/00004583-199701000-00026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Grant B, Dawson D, Hasin D. The Alcohol Use Disorders and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule—Version for DSM-IV (AUDADIS-IV) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; Bethesda, MD: 2001. [Google Scholar]
  22. Grant B, Dawson DA, Stinson FS, Chou PS, Kay W, Pickering R. The Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-IV (AUDADIS-IV): Reliability of alcohol consumption, tobacco use, family history of depression and psychiatric diagnostic modules in a general population sample. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 2003;71:7–16. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(03)00070-x. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(03)00070. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Grant B, Kaplan K, Moore T, Kimball J. 2004-2005 Wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions: Source and accuracy statement. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; Bethesda, MD: 2007. [Google Scholar]
  24. Grant B, Moore T, Shepard J, Kaplan K. Source and accuracy statement: Wave 1 of the 2001-2002 national epidemiologic survey of alcohol and related conditions (NESARC) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; Bethesda, MD: 2003. [Google Scholar]
  25. Green JG, McLaughlin KA, Berglund PA, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC. Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication I: Associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:113–123. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Hardt J, Rutter M. Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: Review of the evidence. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2004;45:260–273. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.x. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hicks BM, South SC, Dirago AC, Iacono WG, McGue M. Environmental adversity and increasing genetic risk for externalizing disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2009;66:640–648. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.554. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.554. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Hildyard KL, Wolfe DA. Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2002;26:679–695. doi: 10.1016/s0145-2134(02)00341-1. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00341-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Keyes KM, Eaton NR, Krueger RF, McLaughlin KA, Wall MM, Grant BF, Hasin DS. Child maltreatment and the structure of common psychiatric disorders. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2011;200:107–115. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.111.093062. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.093062. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Lansford JE, Dodge KA, Pettit GS, Bates JE, Crozier J, Kaplow J. A 12-year prospective study of the long-term effects of early child physical maltreatment on psychological, behavioral, and academic problems in adolescence. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2002;156:824–830. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.156.8.824. doi:10.1001/archpedi.156.8.824. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Laucht M, Skowronek MH, Becker K, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Schulze TG, Rietschel M. Interacting effects of the dopamine transporter gene and psychosocial adversity on attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms among 15-year-olds from a high-risk community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2007;64:585–590. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.585. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.585. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Linares LO, Li M, Shrout PE, Ramirez-Gaite M, Hope S, Albert A, Castellanos FX. The course of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms after foster placement. Pediatrics. 2010;125:e489–e498. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-1285. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-1285. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Lupien SJ, de Leon M, de Santi S, Convit A, Tarshish C, Nair NP, Meaney MJ. Cortisol levels during human aging predict hip-pocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nature Neuroscience. 1998;1:69–73. doi: 10.1038/271. doi:10.1038/271. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR, Heim C. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2009;10:434–445. doi: 10.1038/nrn2639. doi:10.1038/nrn2639. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Manly J, Cicchetti D, Barnett D. The impact of subtype, frequency, chronicity, and severity of child maltreatment on social competence and behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology. 1994;6:121–143. doi:10.1017/S0954579400005915. [Google Scholar]
  36. McGee RA, Wolfe DA, Wilson SK. Multiple maltreatment experiences and adolescent behavior problems: adolescents’ perspectives. Development and Psychopathology. 1997;9:131–149. doi: 10.1017/s0954579497001107. doi:10.1017/S0954579497001107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Meyer JS. Early adrenalectomy stimulates subsequent growth and development of the rat brain. Experimental Neurology. 1983;82:432–446. doi: 10.1016/0014-4886(83)90415-6. doi:10.1016/0014-4886(83)90415-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System . Child maltreatment 2009. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Washington, DC: 2010. [Google Scholar]
  39. Nelson EC, Agrawal A, Pergadia ML, Lynskey MT, Todorov AA, Wang JC, Madden PA. Association of childhood trauma exposure and GABRA2 polymorphisms with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults. Molecular Psychiatry. 2009;14:234–235. doi: 10.1038/mp.2008.81. doi:10.1038/mp.2008.81. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Risch N, Herrel R, Lehner T, Liang K, Eaves L, Hoh J, Merikangas K. Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: a meta-analysis. Journal of the Americam Medical Association. 2009;301:2462–2471. doi: 10.1001/jama.2009.878. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Ruan WJ, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Smith SM, Saha TD, Pickering RP, Grant BF. The alcohol use disorder and associated disabilities interview schedule-IV (AUDADIS-IV): Reliability of new psychiatric diagnostic modules and risk factors in a general population sample. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 2008;92:27–36. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.06.001. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.06.001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Silverman AB, Reinherz HZ, Giaconia RM. The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: A longitudinal community study. Child Abuse & Neglect. 1996;20:709–723. doi: 10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Stirling J, Jr., Amaya-Jackson L. Understanding the behavioral and emotional consequences of child abuse. Pediatrics. 2008;122:667–673. doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-1885. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Straus M. Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage and Family. 1979;41:75–88. doi:10.2307/351733. [Google Scholar]
  45. Tomoda A, Suzuki H, Rabi K, Sheu YS, Polcari A, Teicher MH. Reduced prefrontal cortical gray matter volume in young adults exposed to harsh corporal punishment. Neuroimage. 2009;47:T66–T71. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.005. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Wang C, Holton J. Total estimated cost of child abuse and neglect in the United States. Prevent Child Abuse America; Chicago, IL: 2007. [Google Scholar]
  47. Woodman J, Pitt M, Wentz R, Taylor B, Hodes D, Gilbert RE. Performance of screening tests for child physical abuse in accident and emergency departments. Health Technology Assessment. 2008;12:iii, xi–xiii, 1–95. doi: 10.3310/hta12330. doi:10.3310/hta12330. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES