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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Nov 1.
Published in final edited form as: Clin Immunol. 2013 Feb 28;149(2):182–191. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2013.02.011

TABLE 1a.

ENVIROMENTAL
AGENT		 AUTO-
IMMUNE
DISEASE		 GENDER
PREDOM-
INANCE		 TYPE OF
STUDY		 BIAS STUDIES
SILICA Systemic sclerosis Male Meta-analysis (9 case-controls, 3 cohort, 4 other) Occupational exposure 17–22
SMOKING RA Male Meta-analysis (observational studies) None 28–35
HAIR DYE SLE Female (weak association) 6 case-control Occupational and social exposure 24, 49–54
HAIR DYE RA Female 2 retrospective studies Occupational exposure 56, 57
LIPSTICK SLE Female 1 case-control Social exposure 55
NAIL POLISH SLE Female 1 case-control Social exposure 24
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION DM Female 1 retrospective study None 64
EXOGENOUS ESTROGENS SLE Female 1 cohort study Female participants 69
a

Association of different environmental agents with systemic autoimmune diseases. Included are those studies that are discussed in the main text. Type of study, references, and any biasing factors that lead to gender- as opposed to sex-skewing are listed in the last three columns.