Table 1.

Summary of instability resistance training findings

Examples of instability exercise modes	Postures: unilateral and unipedal
	Surfaces: sand, gravel, water
	Platforms: balls, rollers, wobble/rocker boards
	Devices: suspension chains, ropes, rubber bands, water-filled dumbbells
Training specificity adherence	Unstable athletic and work environments necessitate unstable training environments
Training specificity discordance	Lack of velocity, range of motion, and resistive load specificity with instability resistance training
Balance (only) training responses	↑ Balance and proprioception (large magnitude)
	↑ Functional performance (moderate magnitude)
Instability resistance training
Effects on muscle activation	↑ Trunk and limb muscle activation with moderate levels of instability (large magnitude)
	↓ Trunk and limb muscle activation with high levels of instability (large magnitude)
Effects on functional performance	↓ Force, power, and movement velocity (large magnitude)
Training studies	Large magnitude improvements similar in extent to traditional stable training with recreationally active and sedentary populations
Training adaptation mechanisms	↑ Anticipatory postural adjustments, muscle activation with moderate instability, proprioception, co-contractions
	↓ Postural sway