. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Aug 16.

Published in final edited form as: Circ Res. 2013 Aug 16;113(5):10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.113.302095. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.113.302095

Table 1. Regulators of Substrate Metabolism.

Known factors of transcription, protein modification, and allosteric regulators involved in the stimulation or inhibition of metabolic pathways. Numbers indicate relevant references for review. HIF1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha, PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; F1,6BP, fructose 1,6-biphosphate; Pi, inorganic phosphate; NAD⁺, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced; G6P, glucose 6-phosphate; FOXO1, forkhead box protein O1; PDK4, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4; PCG-1α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; ERRα, estrogen-related receptor alpha; MCD, malonyl CoA decarboxylase; ACC2, acetyl CoA carboxylase 2; PP2Cm, protein phosphatase 2Cm; BCKDK, branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase.

Pathway	Stimulation	Inhibition
Glycolysis	HIF1α¹⁵ PPARγ²⁰⁹ AMPK²¹⁰ Insulin²¹¹ Epinephrine²¹² AMP, ADP, Pi²¹³ NAD^{+ 213} F1,6BP²¹³	ATP²¹³ NADH²¹³ G6P²¹³ citrate²¹⁴
Glucose oxidation	Insulin²¹⁵ Epinephrine²¹² NAD⁺²¹³ Calcium²¹⁶	PPARα²⁰⁹ FOXO1²¹⁷ PDK4¹⁶ Fatty Acids²¹⁴ Acetyl CoA, NADH, ATP²¹³

Fatty acid oxidation	PPAR/PGC-1α/ERR^12-14,209 FOXO1²¹⁷ AMPK²¹⁰ MCD²¹⁸ Adiponectin^219,220 Fatty Acids²²¹	ACC2²²² Malonyl-CoA²²³ Glucose²¹⁴ Lactate¹¹ Ketone bodies¹⁰

BCAA catabolism	PP2Cm^17,18 Glucagon²²⁴	BCKDK²²⁵ NADH, CoA esters²¹³
Ketone body oxidation	acetoacetate²¹³