Table 3.

Developmental toxicology endpoints

Endpoints	Methods of measurement
General growth, morphology of body regions, organs and tissues	Classical teratology
Organization of organs & tissues	Microscopic veterinary or human pathology
Cellular composition of tissues	Relative composition of major cell types; histopathology, histochemistry, histomorphometry
Finer cellular and tissue profiles	Tissue content of stem cells and progenitor cells; inflammatory/migratory cell populations; extracellular matrix/ cell matrix interactions; assess cell cycle kinetics, critical cellular process (e.g., apoptosis and autophagy)
Molecular changes within cells	DNA, RNA, proteins (including processing, turnover, etc.), lipids and glycosylation; genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, microRNAs/siRNAs
"Accessible" or "translatable" (can be used in lab models and in humans) biomarkers	- Imaging (ultrasound, MRI, CT, etc.)
	- Functional assessments (behavior, treadmill, learning, cognition, renal function studies, lung function studies, grip strength, etc.)
	- Tissue biopsies, male and female gametes/follicular fluid; amniotic fluid; blood, urine
	- Routine chemistries, hematology,
	- Circulating cells (e.g., bone marrow stem cells, leukocytes, other stem/progenitor cells)
Biomolecules in blood plasma, urine including macromolecules, small molecules	- Specific assays for individual molecules
	- "Broad Net" approaches of proteomics, metabolomics, siRNAs, etc.
Integrative Physiology/Systems Biology	Multiple opportunities to link in vitro and animal models to humans and to use mathematical models to dynamically integrate multiple biological parameters