TABLE 1.
Maternal, labor and delivery, newborn, breastfeeding, and clinical characteristics in women with recent GDM, overall and by lactogenesis status (n = 883)1
| Variables | Overall (n = 883) | Timely lactogenesis (n = 588) | Delayed lactogenesis (n = 295) |
| Sociodemographic characteristics | |||
| Age (y) | 33.3 ± 4.82 | 33.1 ± 4.7 | 33.6 ± 4.9 |
| Education (formal schooling) (y) | 14.8 ± 2.9 | 14.7 ± 3.0 | 15.1 ± 2.7* |
| Race and ethnicity [n (%)] | |||
| Non-Hispanic white | 207 (23.4) | 125 (21.3) | 82 (27.8) |
| Non-Hispanic black | 61 (6.9) | 39 (6.6) | 22 (7.5) |
| Hispanic other | 272 (30.8) | 196 (33.3) | 76 (25.8) |
| Asian | 324 (36.7) | 216 (36.7) | 108 (36.6) |
| Other race or ethnicity | 19 (2.2) | 12 (2.0) | 7 (2.4) |
| WIC recipient (yes) [n (%)] | 222 (25.1) | 160 (27.2) | 62 (21.0)* |
| Prenatal characteristics | |||
| Prepregnancy BMI [n (%)] | |||
| <25 kg/m2 | 279 (31.6) | 195 (33.2) | 84 (28.5) |
| ≥25 to <30 kg/m2 | 260 (29.5) | 175 (29.8) | 85 (28.8) |
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 344 (39.0) | 218 (37.1) | 126 (42.7) |
| Severe GDM (>2 abnormal OGTT values) [n (%)] | 370 (41.9) | 239 (40.7) | 131 (44.4) |
| Treatment of GDM [n (%)] | |||
| Diet modification only | 607 (68.7) | 415 (70.6) | 192 (65.1)* |
| Oral hypoglycemic agents | 247 (28.0) | 162 (27.6) | 85 (28.1) |
| Insulin | 29 (3.3) | 11 (1.9) | 18 (6.1) |
| Gestational weight gain (kg) | 10.3 ± 6.7 | 10.4 ± 6.5 | 10.3 ± 7.0 |
| Excessive gestational weight gain (yes) [n (%)] | 298 (33.8) | 198 (33.7) | 100 (33.9) |
| Recommended pregnancy weight gain (%) | 87.8 ± 62.6 | 87.3 ± 60.4 | 88.7 ± 66.9 |
| Infant feeding intentions score3 | 17.1 ± 3.8 | 17.1 ± 3.9 | 17.2 ± 3.8 |
| Parity [n (%)] | |||
| Primiparous | 331 (37.5) | 179 (30.4) | 152 (51.5)*** |
| Multiparous | 552 (62.5) | 409 (69.6) | 143 (48.5) |
| Labor and delivery [n (%)] | |||
| Cesarean delivery section | 257 (29.1) | 158 (26.9) | 99 (33.6)* |
| Labor-duration categories4 | |||
| ≤9.0 h | 397 (45.0) | 292 (49.7) | 105 (35.6)** |
| >9.0 h | 364 (41.2) | 220 (37.4) | 144 (48.8) |
| No labor | 122 (13.8) | 76 (12.9) | 46 (15.6) |
| Newborn characteristics [n (%)] | |||
| Gestational age | |||
| 35–36 wk | 38 (4.3) | 23 (3.9) | 15 (5.1) |
| 37–39 wk | 628 (71.1) | 419 (71.3) | 209 (70.9) |
| ≥40 wk | 217 (24.6) | 146 (24.8) | 71 (24.1) |
| Birth weight | |||
| 1500–2499 g | 21 (2.4) | 12 (2.0) | 9 (3.1) |
| 2500–2999 g | 164 (18.6) | 107 (18.2) | 57 (19.3) |
| 3000–3999 g | 605 (68.5) | 405 (68.9) | 200 (67.8) |
| ≥4000 g | 93 (10.5) | 64 (10.9) | 29 (9.8) |
| Size | |||
| Large-for-gestational-age | 186 (21.1) | 128 (21.8) | 58 (19.7) |
| Small-for-gestational-age | 18 (2.0) | 10 (1.7) | 8 (2.7) |
| Appropriate-for-gestational-age | 679 (76.9) | 450 (76.5) | 229 (77.6) |
| Apgar score at 5 min | |||
| ≤6 | 9 (1.0) | 6 (1.0) | 3 (1.0) |
| ≥7 | 840 (95.1) | 555 (94.4) | 285 (96.6) |
| Missing Apgar score | 34 (3.9) | 27 (4.6) | 7 (2.4) |
| Sex | |||
| M | 461 (52.2) | 312 (53.1) | 149 (50.5) |
| F | 422 (47.8) | 276 (46.9) | 146 (49.5) |
| Early breastfeeding [n (%)] | |||
| LATCH-score categories on day 14 | |||
| ≤7.5 | 463 (52.4) | 272 (46.3) | 191 (64.8)*** |
| >7.5 | 420 (47.6) | 316 (53.7) | 104 (35.3) |
| Postpartum status (6–9 wk) | |||
| BMI categories [n (%)] | |||
| <25 kg/m2 | 208 (23.6) | 146 (24.8) | 62 (21.0) |
| ≥25 to <30 kg/m2 | 310 (35.1) | 209 (35.5) | 101 (34.2) |
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 365 (41.3) | 233 (39.6) | 132 (44.8) |
| Percentage of body fat5 | 45.5 ± 7.3 | 45.1 ± 7.1 | 46.4 ± 7.6* |
| ISI0,1206 | 1.6 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.4 |
| HOMA-IR | 5.5 ± 4.1 | 5.4 ± 4.2 | 5.6 ± 4.0 |
1
Chi-square or Fisher's exact test was used for categorical variables; t test was used for continuous variables. *P<0.05; ** P<0.001; *** P<0.0001. GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; ISI, insulin sensitivity index; OGTT, oral-glucose-tolerance test; WIC, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.
2
Mean ± SD (all such values).
3
n = 607 reported infant feeding intentions.
4
Cutoff was the median value.
5
n = 750 had bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements.
6
Calculated by using the fasting (0-min) and 120-min concentrations of glucose and insulin in the OGTT.