Tab. 1.

Antidiabetic plants indigenous to Jordan used for the treatment of diabetes in folk medicine in Jordan.

No	Species	Reported antidiabetic efficacy and/or mechanism of action	Other reported pharmacological effects
	Reported phytoconstituents
1	Asteraceae Achillea fragrantissima (Forsk.) Sch. Bip (Infusion of leaves and shoots [23]) Flavonoids [67–69]. Essential oil (santolina alcohol, artemisia alcohol, artemisia ketone, cis-thujone and trans-thujone, 1,8-cineole, fragranol, fragranyl acetate and terpin-4-ol) [70].	NONE	Antioxidative effects [43]. Lacked any antirheumatic or anti-inflammatory effects in carrageenan-induced acute inflammation in rats [71], but exerted antimicrobial and antiviral activities [70, 72–75]. Modulatory effects on rat ileum muscle contraction [74]. Beneficial in preventing/treating neuro-degenerative diseases [76]. Aqueous extract exhibited strong cytotoxicity and larvicidal activities [77, 78].
2	Asteraceae Achillea santolina L. (Infusion of leaves, flowering branches [24]) Flavonoids such as luteolin, quercetin, cosmosiin, hyperoside and cynaroside [79–81], terpenoids [82]. Essential oil (1,8-cineole, fragranol, fragranyl acetate and terpin-4-ol) [70].	Hypoglycemic activity in STZ rats due to antioxidative potential [51, 83–84]. Lack of significant inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase in vitro despite acute antihyperglycemic trend in starch fed rats [48].	Enhancement of antimicrobial efficacy against antibiotic resistant E. coli and other microorganisms [85, 86]. Potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities [87].
3	Asteraceae Ambrosia maritima L. (Infusion of herb [24]) Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones [88–90]. Thiophene A and thiophene A diol as major polyacetylenes [91].	NONE	Cytotoxicity [88]. Effective molluscicidal activity [92–96] but little or no effect on the larvae of Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti[97, 98] as well as hepatoprotective and antioxidant properties [99]. Antifungal activity of its sesquiterpenes [89].
4	Asteraceae Anthemis pseudocotula Boiss (Infusion of flowering heads, leaves [24]) Flavonoids (apigenin, apigenin-7-glucoside) and coumarins (scopoletin and herniarin) [100]. Essential oil [101], sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones [102, 103].	NONE	NONE
5	Asteraceae Varthemia iphionoides Boiss and Blanche (Decoction of shoots, leaves [23, 25]) Eudesmane sesquiterpene [104]. Flavonoids: jaceidine, kumatakenine, xanthomicrol, seven 3-methoxyflavones [105–107]. Essential oil [108, 109].	Inhibitory activity against porcine pancreas α-amylase [110]. Highly significant dose dependent dual anti-α-amylase and anti-α-glucosidase efficacies in vitro[49]. Significant decreases in the blood glucose levels of the STZ hyperglycaemic rats and hypoglycaemic activity in the diabetic sand rats [111, 112].	Antiplatelets benefits [113] as well as antioxidative effects [43, 105, 110, 114]. Cytotoxic effect on human leukemia (HL-60) and antitumor properties [105, 115]. Pronounced antibacterial and antifungal propensities [86, 105, 106, 116].
6	Capparaceae Cleoma droserifolia (Forskal) Delil (Decoction of leaves [24]) Terpenes, flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin) and phenolic acids [117–122].	Hypoglycaemic efficacy via potentiation of peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity, thus decreasing hepatic glucose output. Also decreasing intestinal glucose absorption, which was evident by blunting plasma glucose levels throughout the oral glucose challenge in tetracycline-induced fatty liver rats [123]. Insulin induction activity [124]; restored the blood glucose level, plasma malondialdehyde, and urine sugar to near the physiological values [121]. In alloxan-induced diabetic mice reduced oxidative stress in addition to antihyperglcemic activity [125].	Suppressive effect on NO production in activated macrophages in vitro[117]. Hepato-protective effect [119]. Hypocholesterolemic and protective anti-atherogenic benefits in tetracycline induced fatty liver in rats [123]. Hypolipidemic, antioxidative and anti-Schistosomiasis mansoni properties [124–126]. Hepatotoxicity in co-culture systems [127]. Significant cytotoxic activity against breast (MCF7) and colon (HCT116) cancer cell lines [122].
7	Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (Dry seeds [23]) Spinasterol [128]. Carotenoids (violaxanthin, beta-carotene) and lutein [129]. Tocopherols, fatty acids (oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids), beta sitosterol and phenolic acids [130–133]. Water soluble polysaccharide fraction [134]. Volatile compounds, such as lipid aldehydes, ethyl acetate, 2,3-butanedione, and dimethylsulfide [135].	Wistar rats treated for 70 days with pumpkin seed flour exhibited significant decrease in glucose and triacylglycerides [136].	Antigenotoxic principle [128] and antioxidative benefits [134]. Trypsin inhibition [137, 138]. Larvicidal, ovicidal and repellent properties against mosquito bites [139].
8	Cupressaceae Juniperus phoenicea L. (Decoction of fruits, leaves [13]) Lignans [140]. Phenylpropane glycosides [141], essential oil (α-pinene, α-and β-phellandrenes, α-terpinyl acetate, Δ3 carene and myrcene) [142–156]. Oxygenated diterpenes [157]. Terpenic hydrocarbon fraction dominance [158–160]. Polyphenols, flavonoids and essential oil from the fleshy cones [161–164]	NONE	Anticancer constituents [140] and cytotoxicity against 5 cell lines [156, 157]. Antimicrobial properties and helpful in the prevention of aflatoxin contamination for many foods [144, 150, 153, 154, 156, 159, 160, 163–166]. Potent activity against Candida albicans[143]. Antiparasitic, nematicidal and antifouling constituents [155, 167] with tick repellent properties [168]. Antioxidative [152, 159, 160, 162, 164, 166] propensities. Remarkable effect in enhancing liver and kidney functions in CCl4 treated rats, and may thus be of therapeutic potential in treatment of hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity [169, 170]. Wound-healing effect [171]. Anticholinesterase activity [148, 166].
9	Fagaceae Quercus coccifera L. (Decoction of galls [13]) Polyphenols and tannins (pedunculagin, castalagin, phillyraeoidin A, and acutissimin B) [164, 172, 173]. Sesquiterpenes [174].	NONE	Antioxidant and antibacterial properties [164]. Anti-lipoperoxidant properties-related gastroprotective and anti-ulcerogenic effects [173, 175]. Anthelmintic activity against parasitic nematodes [176].
10	Geraniaceae Geranium graveolens L. (Decoction of leaves [13, 24]) Essential oils [177–182].	Dual inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase in vitro, confirmed by highly significant and potent acute antihyperglycemic trends in starch-fed rats [49].	Fumigant antitermitic activity [179]. Antioxidant activity [182]. Repellent effect against host-seeking nymphs of Ixodes ricinus[183] with antimicrobial qualities [180, 184, 185]. Mosquito repellent property [186]. Improves the immune cell count of cancer patients receiving chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy to prevent leucopenia and immune impairment that usually occurs during cancer therapy [187].
11	Labiatae Ajuga iva L. (Schreber) (Decoction of herb [24]) 14,15-dihydroajugapitin [188] Ecdysones [189] and phytoecdysteroids [190, 191]. Iridoids, such as 8-O-acetylharpagide [192, 193].	Its phytoecdysteroids are beneficial for correcting the hyperglycaemia and preventing diabetic complications in liver, pancreas and kidneys in alloxan diabetic rats [191]. Acute and subchronic antihyperglycemic effects in normoglycemic and STZ-diabetic rats [194, 195].	Hypolipidemic and hypocholesterolemic activities that may reduce intestinal cholesterol absorption [195–200] as well as antiatherogenic efficacy [199]. Vasorelaxant effect in rat aorta [196]. Reducing the oxidative stress in hyper-cholesterolemic rats by increasing the antioxidant enzymes activity [200]. Antioxidative benefits [201]. Inhibits crystallization of calcium oxalate in the urine [202]. Insecticidal properties [203, 204].
12	Leguminoseae Alhagi maurorum Medicus (Decoction of roots [24]) Flavonoids (isorhamnetin-3-O-[-α-1-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)]-β-D-glucopyranoside; 3′-O-methylorobol and quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside) [205, 206]; cinnamic acids, phenolic acids, β-sitosterol and its glucoside [205, 207]. Three flavones (2-phenyl-1,4-benzopyrone derivatives) [208]. Polymethoxy substituted flavanenol [209] and triterpenoid lupeol [210]. Tannins and anthraquinones [211].	NONE	Antioxidative [206, 207, 212], anti-inflammatory [208, 210, 213, 214], antifungal [211] and anti-gastric ulcer [208, 214–216] activities. Antinociceptive [217] and antidiarrhoeal effects [218]. Spasmolytic and urether relaxing benefits [209, 219, 220]. ACE- and NADH oxidase-inhibitory activity [221]. Antibacterial activity [222]. Potent allelopathic activity [223].
13	Poaceae Zea mays L. (Decoction of kernel [26]) Feruloylated oligosaccharide [224]. Flavone C-glycosides and sesquiterpenes [225, 226]. Phenolics (proto-catechuic acid mainly) [227]. Hydroxycinnamic acids [228]. Anthocyanins (cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-(6″-Qmalonylglucoside) [229].	In vitro inhibition of glycation [225]. Suppressed the progression of diabetic glomerular sclerosis in STZ- diabetic rat [230]. Decreasing blood glucose and protective action on the kidney and pancreas injury of STZ diabetic rats [231]. Inhibition of hyperglycaemia-relevant α-glucosidase but not α-amylase [227, 232]. Antidiabetic activity might be due PPAR activation [233]. Possible renoprotective role in diabetic nephropathy [229].	Antioxidative [227, 234] action. Inhibited significantly the hypertension-relevant angiotensin I-converting enzyme [227]. Litholytic effects of herbal extracts on cystine urinary calculi [235]. Attenuating high-glucose-induced mesangial fibrosis and inflammation [229].
14	Polygonaceae Rheum ribes Linn. (Decoction of roots [23]) Tannins and hydroxyanthracene derivatives (rhein, physcion, aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, physcion-8-O-glucoside, aloe-emodin-8-O-glucoside, sennoside A, rhaponticin) [236, 237], minerals [238], phenolics (pyrocatechol) and flavonoids (quercetin equivalents) [239].	Insulin releasing effects in healthy mice [240] and hypoglycemic activity in alloxan-diabetic animals [241]. Significant dose dependent dual inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase in vitro[48].	Antiviral [242] and antibacterial activities [243] with nutritional value [238]. Antioxidative potential [239, 244, 245]. Cytotoxic effects [246, 247] and anti-ulcer activity [248] as well as treating mild to moderate major depression disorders [249].
15	Rhamnaceae Zizyphus spina- christi (L.) Desf. (Infusion of fruits, leaves, bark [27]) Saponin glycosides [250–252]. Flavonoids [253, 254]. Essential oil [255, 256]. Amino acid, carbohydrate and lipid composition [257, 258].	Insulinotropic hypoglycaemic effects in diabetic rats [251, 259, 260]. Antidiabetic effect in alloxan-diabetic dogs [261].	Cytoprotective against liver aflatoxicosis [262, 263] and CCl4-fibrosis [264], vasoconstrictive effect in rat aorta [265]. Antiviral, antifungal and antibacterial activities [253, 266]. Its lipid fraction showed antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pyogenes[257]. Its fruit and seed are good source of protein, mineral and energy foods [258]. Antinociceptive effect in mice and rats [267, 268]. Antidiarrhoeal benefits [269]. Mild dose dependent CNS depressant effect [270]. Molluscicidal property [94].
16	Rosaceae Alchemilla vulgaris L.(Decoction of leaves, roots [28]) Polyphenols [271–273], flavonoids [274–276], tannins [277], gallic acid [278].	Weight reduction in obese subjects [279] despite lack of antihyper-glycemic activity in STZ diabetes mice [280].	Antioxidative properties [271, 273, 275]. Mouth ulcers and wound-healing properties associated with pro-mitotic activity in epithelial cells and myofibroblasts [281, 282]. Activation of thyroid hormone synthesis [272]; antimicrobial with antiradical [277, 283, 284] as well as anxiolytic properties [285].
17	Rosaceae Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach. [Syn Poterium spinosum L.] (Infusion, decoction of roots [13, 24, 27–29]) Triterpenoids [286]. α-tocopherol [287], proanthocyanidines [288].	Traditionally used in the treatment of diabetes [289]. Hypoglycaemic effect, evidenced in rabbits, with fluctuations [290–292]. Antidiabetic properties viz. insulinotropic, and insulin sensitizing [293, 294]. Starch blocker due to duality of inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase [48].	Action potential changes induced by its polyflavane on normal or hypoxic guinea pig myocardial strips [295]. Tumour inhibitory effects [296] and antioxidative properties [43]. Inhibited isoproterenol-induced lipolysis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes [293].
18	Umbelliferae Ferula persica Wild. (Decoction of roots and resin [23, 30]) Sesquiterpenes, persicasulphides A, B and C and umbelliprenin [297–303]. Several coumarins (farnesiferol A, B, badrakemone, gummosin) and a new coumarin, farnesiferone A) [303, 304]. Sesquiterpene coumarin glycosides [305, 306]. Essential oil [307–310].	Did not demonstrate any α-amylase inhibitory activity, thus lacking on significant hypoglycaemic effects in normoglycemic and STZ-hyperglycaemic rats [46].	Matrix metalloproteinases inhibition [297]. Umbelliprenin from F. persica roots inhibits the red pigment production in Serratia marcescens[299]. Antifungal activity [300]. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and lipoxygenase inhibitory properties and cancer preventive activity of umbelliferin [302, 303]. Farnesiferol A significantly inhibited the P-glycoprotein activity [305]. Antimicrobial effects [309]. Antigenotoxic activity via prevention of oxidative damage to DNA of rat lymphocytes [311] as well as cytotoxicity [312]. Umbelliprenin induced apoptosis in CLL cell lines [313].
19	Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. (Decoction of herb [26]) Polyphenolics [314–316]. Flavonoids [317–319]. Essential oil [320, 321]. Lignan glucosides [322]. Carotenoids [323].	Antidiabetic effect on high fructose fed rats [324]. Alpha-amylase inhibitory activity [325]. Antihyperglycemia in animal models via reduction of intestinal glucose absorption [326] and enhancement of insulin secretion by Langerhans Isletes [327] or inhibition of α-glucosidase [328]. Hypoglycemic and protective activities of β-cells of Langerhans in hyperglycemic rats [329]. Proliferation of the beta cells of the diabetic rats [330]. Chronic exposure (24 h) to U. dioica significantly enhanced glucose uptake in L6-GLUT4myc myoblast cells [331]. Anti-hyperglycemic effect in STZ-rats via potentiating insulin activity, thus enhancing glucose utilization [332] and plausible activation of the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor in glucose homeostasis [333]. Protective effect on hepatocytes of STZ rats [334], neuro-protective effect in diabetes-induced loss of pyramidal cells [335].	Antioxidant, antiradical, antimicrobial and antiulcerogenic effects [314–316, 336]. Antimicrobial activity [337]. Promotes learning performance in the brain of rats [338]. Immunostimulatory activity of the flavonoid fraction and intracellular killing activity of the isolated flavonoid glycosides suggesting that they could possibly be useful for treating patients suffering from neutrophil function deficiency and chronic granulomatous diseases [317]. Immunostimulatory activity [317, 318, 339]. Cardiovascular effects like hypotensive responses, through a vasorelaxing effect mediated by the release of endothelial NO and the opening of potassium channels, and through a negative inotropic action [340]. Beneficial for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia [341]. Platelet inhibitory activity [342]. Hepatoprotective in CCl4 treated rats [343] and protective effect on the liver in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion-injured rats [344]. Antifungal role [266]. Regulation of inflammatory gene expression [345]. Aromatase inhibitory activity [346].
20	Zygophyllaceae Peganum harmala Linn. (Decoction of seeds [30]) Flavonoid glycosides [347] and major β-carboline alkaloids (Harmaline, harmine, harmalol, harmol and tetrahydroharmine) [348–350].	Antidiabetic activity in C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice [351].	Antiplasmodial and vasorelaxant benefits [352]. Antileishmanial [353, 354], analgesic [355], anti-inflammatory [356], and antiplatelet activities [357]. Insecticidal activity [358–360], antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral propensities [361–366]. ACE-inhibitory activity [367, 368] and inhibition of human monoamine oxidase (MAO) [369]. In vitro cell-toxicity on cancerous cell-lines [370–372] as well as herbicidal activity [373].