Figure 1. Effects of playbacks on females’ behaviour.

Mean (A) proportions of time spent in vigilance (± SE), (B) bite rates (± SE) (numbers of bites per minute during foraging), and (C) step rates (± SE) (numbers of steps per minute) of female impalas exposed to control stimuli, playbacks of lions’ roars and male impalas’ calls during pre- and post-playback periods. *, ** and *** indicate significance at the p < 0.05, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001 levels, respectively.