Table 3.

Data on endogenous bioelectric signal roles in morphogenesis. Studies in which bioelectric parameters have been functionally shown to have an instructive patterning role

Role	Species/system	References
Cellular polarization (anatomical asymmetry of  cell or epithelium)	Alga Fucus, yeast	Jaffe 1982; Minc and Chang 2010
Migration of neurons and positional information	Chick, Amphibia	Pan and Borgens 2010; Shi and Borgens 1995
Patterning in gastrulation, neurulation and  organogenesis	Chick, axolotl, frog	Adams et al. 2006; Borgens and Shi 1995;  Hotary and Robinson 1992; Levin et al. 2002;  Shi and Borgens 1995; Stern 1982
Directional transport of maternal components  into the oocyte	Moth, Drosophila	Woodruff 2005
Growth control and size determination	Segmented worms	Kurtz and Schrank 1955
Neural differentiation	Xenopus embryo	Lange et al. 2011; Uzman et al. 1998
Polarity during regeneration	Planaria, plants, and annelids	Beane et al. 2011; Bentrup et al. 1967; Marsh and Beams 1947, 1949, 1950, 1952; Novak and Bentrup 1972; Novak and Sirnoval 1975)
Induction of limb and spinal cord regeneration	Amphibia	Borgens 1986; Borgens et al. 1990, 1986
Control of gene expression and anatomy in  craniofacial patterning	Xenopus embryo	Vandenberg et al. 2011
Induction of eye development	Xenopus embryo	Pai et al. 2012