Table 6.
Biological Samples and Medical Examinations of Relevance for Studies on Environmental Impacts on Fecundity and Reproduction
| Tissue or Examination | Related Outcomes or Measures | Examples of References |
|---|---|---|
| Semen | Male fecundity (sperm morphology, mobility, concentration, DNA quality) | (112) |
| Ultrasound examination of ovaries and ovarian reserve | Ovarian/menstrual function, ovarian structure (polycystic ovaries), and fecundity | |
| Urine | Exposure biomarkers | |
| Hormonal markers | (49) | |
| Metabolomics | ||
| Maternal blood | Exposure biomarkers | |
| Markers of inflammation, immunological and hormonal status, glucose tolerance tests | (113) | |
| DNA methylation, gene expression, metabolomics | ||
| Vaginal sample | Vaginal microbiota, vaginosis | |
| Ultrasound examination | Fetal size and growth; possibly placental morphology | (114) |
| Congenital malformations | ||
| Maternal blood pressure, electrocardiography | Maternal cardiovascular function | (115, 116) |
| Doppler examination of uterine, umbilical, or fetal arteries | Blood flow, oxygen and nutriment supply | (95) |
| Cord blood | Exposure biomarkers | (117) |
| Markers of inflammation, immunological and hormonal status | ||
| DNA methylation, gene expression, metabolomics | ||
| Amniotic fluid (if available) | Exposure biomarkers | (118) |
| Placental tissue | DNA methylation | (119) |
| Gene expression | (120) | |
| DNA content | (121) | |
| Vascularization/histology | (122) | |
| Exposure biomarkers | (123) | |
| Meconium | Exposure biomarkers | (124) |