Table 1.

Putative functions for the detoxification genes expressed in different life stages of Bombus huntii , based on the function assigned when the gene was first isolated

Enzymes	Putative functions	Taxon of identified gene	Reference	Bombus huntii life stage/caste1
Oxidation and reduction enzymes
Aldehyde dehydrogenases	Acetaldehyde detoxification	Drosophila melanogaster	[25]	ii, iii, v, vi, vii
Alcohol dehydrogenases	Interconversion of alcohols and aldehydes or ketones with the reduction of NADH	D. melanogaster	[25]	all
Catalases	Catalyze H2O2 to H2O and O2	Anopheles gambiae	[26]	i, ii, iii, vi, vii, viii
Cytochrome P450s	Detoxify xenobiotics by transferring O2 to a substrate and producing H2O2, OH–, O2-	D. melanogaster, A. gambiae, Tyria jacobaeae, Culex quinquefasciatus	[1,16,27,28]	all
Dehalogenases	Remove halogen from haloacid compounds	Sinorhizobium meliloti	[29]	iii, iv, vi, vii
Hydroxylases	Degrades toxic organic compounds and pesticides by introducing –OH	Chrysopogon zizanioides	[30]	ii-vii
Oxidoreductases	Detoxify gramine	Sitobion avenae	[31]	all
Peroxidases	Catalyze H2O2 and organic hydroperoxides (OHPs)	A. gambiae	[32]	all
Superoxide dismutases (SOD)	Catalyze the dismutation of O2– into O2 and H2O2	A. mellifera	[33,34]	all
Thioredoxins/glutaredoxins	Detoxification of ROS	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	[35]	i, ii, vi, vii, viii
Conjugation enzymes
Acetyltransferases	Detoxify sulfadiazine and aromatic chemicals by transferring acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA to arylamines	Legionella pneumophila, Homo sapiens	[36,37]	i, ii, iii, v, vi, vii, viii
Acyltransferase	Catalyze carboxylic acid group, such as benzoic, isovaleric, or acetylsalicylic acids	H. sapiens	[38]	i, ii, iv, vi, vii, viii
CoA transferases	Acetate detoxification	Aspergillus nidulans	[39]	viii
Formyltransferases	Formaldehyde detoxification	Burkholderia fungorum	[40]	i, ii, iii, vi, vii, viii
Glutathione S-transferases (GST)	Detoxify endogenous compounds (peroxidised lipids) and exogenous toxins (pyrethroid and organophosphate) by catalyzing reduced glutathione	Tenebrio molitor, Bombus ignites, Locusta migratoria manilensis	[18,41]	all
Glycosyltransferases	Glycosyltransfer to OH–, NH2-, SH-, or COOH for detoxifying insecticides	Bombyx mori	[17,42]	all
Methyltransferases	Catalyze methylation reactions using S-adenosyl-L-methionine as a substrate for detoxification	H. sapiens	[43]	all
Phosphotransferases	Detoxify insecticides such as DDT	Triatoma infestans	[44]	i, ii, vi, vii, viii
Sulfotransferases	Detoxify insecticides such as DDT	T. infestans	[44]	iii, vii
Transaminases or aminotransferases	Detoxify 3-hydroxykynurenine and glyoxylate by catalyzing amino acid and α-keto acid	Aedes aegypti, D. melanogaster	[45]	ii-viii
Hydrolytic enzymes
Acetylcholine and carboxyl esterases	Detoxify pyrethroids and organophosphates by hydrolysis of acyl group or ester bonds	Lucilia cuprina, D. melanogaster	[22]	all
Acid/Alkaline phosphatases	Detoxify endotoxin and plant toxin	Danio rerio, Agriolimax agrestis	[46,47]	ii, iii, vi, vii
Amidases	Detoxify toxic amides or esters, or organophosphorus or carbamate pesticides	Acromyrmex octospinosus	[48]	ii, iii, iv, vi, vii, viii
Aminopeptidases	Detoxify Bt Cry toxin, mycotoxin, organophosphonates, pyrethroid esters, microbial or botanical pesticides	B. mori, Pseudoplusia includens, E. coli	[42,48,49]	all
Cyclohydrolase	Hydrolysis of L-phenylalanine	Drosophila spp.	[50]	vi
Glycosidases	Hydrolyze sugar-containing compounds such as tannic acid and gallic acid	Manduca sexta	[48]	i, ii, iii, v, vi, vii, viii
Glycosylases	Detoxify cytotoxic and cytostatic substances such as 5-methyl group of a thymine residue, biodegrade saponins	Phaeosphaeria nodorum, P. avenaria f. sp. triticea	[51]	i, ii, vi, vii, viii
Nitrilases	Detoxify HCN	Caenorhabditis elegans	[52]	i-vii
Phosphodiesterase	Break phosphodiester bond for hydrolysis of organophosphate insecticides	E. coli	[53]	ii, iii, iv, vi, vii
Phosphohydrolases	Detoxify cypermethrin and bifenthrin	Tribolium castaneum	[54]	ii, iii-viii
Others with possible stress related functions
ABC transporters	Export conjugated toxins out of the cell	Drosophila spp.	[11]	vii, viii
Cadherins	Resistance to Bt toxin (Cry1Ac)	Helicoverpa armigera	[55]	i, ii, vi, vii, viii
Heat shock proteins	Involved in folding and unfolding of proteins, detoxification of pesticides and heavy metals	Chironomus tentans	[56]	all
Isomerases	Detoxify organophosphates by structural rearrangement of isomers	E. coli	[16]	all
Lyases	Break various chemical bonds other than hydrolysis and oxidation for detoxification	Zygaena transalpina	[57]	all

i-egg, ii-early instar larvae, iii-late instar larvae, iv-pupae, v-adult male, vi-adult worker, vii-diapausing queen, viii-egglaying queen, all-all stages.