Table 2.
Risk factors for specific birth defects and childhood cancers, Camp Lejeune, 1968–1985
|
Potential risk factor |
Controls* |
Neural tube defects |
Oral clefts |
Cancers** |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| # (%) | # (%) OR (95%CI) | # (%) OR (95%CI) | # (%) OR (95%CI) | ||||
| Maternal age |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| <20 |
86 (16.4) |
5 (33.3) |
2.6 (0.9, 7.6) |
4 (16.7) |
1.0 (0.3, 3.1) |
2 (15.4) |
0.9 (0.2, 4.3) |
| ≥20 |
438 (83.6) |
10 (66.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
20 (83.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (84.6) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Maternal education |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Not a college graduate |
375 (72.1) |
10 (66.7) |
0.8 (0.3, 2.3) |
19 (82.6) |
1.8 (0.6, 5.5) |
12 (92.3) |
4.6 (0.6, 36.0) |
| College graduate |
145 (27.9) |
5 (33.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
4 (17.4) |
1.0 (ref.) |
1 (7.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Prenatal Care† |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| “Inadequate” |
44 (9.2) |
1 (6.7) |
0.7 (0.1, 5.5) |
2 (9.1) |
1.0 (0.2, 4.4) |
1 (8.3) |
0.9 (0.1, 7.1) |
| “Adequate” |
436 (90.8) |
14 (93.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
20 (90.9) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (91.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Prenatal vitamins, 1st trimester |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| No |
64 (14.9) |
2 (13.3) |
0.9 (0.2, 4.0) |
4 (18.2) |
1.3 (0.4, 3.9) |
1 (8.3) |
0.5 (0.1, 4.1) |
| Yes |
365 (85.1) |
13 (86.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
18 (81.8) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (91.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| 1st pregnancy |
168 (32.4) |
7 (46.7) |
1.8 (0.7, 5.1) |
12 (52.2) |
2.3 (1.0, 5.3) |
1 (8.3) |
0.2 (0.0, 1.5) |
| >1 pregnancy |
351 (67.6) |
8 (53.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (47.8) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (91.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Mother worked, 1st trimester |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
76 (15.3) |
1 (7.7) |
0.5 (0.1, 3.6) |
5 (25.0) |
1.9 (0.7, 5.2) |
2 (15.4) |
1.0 (0.2, 4.6) |
| No |
421 (84.7) |
12 (92.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
15 (75.0) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (84.6) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Smoking, 1st trimester |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
130 (29.3) |
1 (6.7) |
0.2 (0.0, 1.3) |
4 (18.2) |
0.5 (0.2, 1.6) |
5 (41.7) |
1.7 (0.5, 5.5) |
| No |
314 (70.7) |
14 (93.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
18 (81.8) |
1.0 (ref.) |
7 (58.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Alcohol, 1st trimester |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
96 (21.7) |
3 (21.4) |
1.0 (0.3, 3.6) |
7 (31.8) |
1.7 (0.7, 4.3) |
1 (8.3) |
0.3 (0.0, 2.6) |
| No |
347 (78.3) |
11 (78.6) |
1.0 (ref.) |
15 (68.2) |
1.0 (ref.) |
11 (91.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Fevers, 1st trimester |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
45 (10.7) |
1 (6.7) |
0.6 (0.1, 4.6) |
3 (13.6) |
1.3 (0.4, 4.6) |
2 (18.2) |
1.9 (0.4, 8.9) |
| No |
376 (89.3) |
14 (93.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
19 (86.4) |
1.0 (ref.) |
9 (81.8) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Passive smoke, 1st trimester |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
203 (45.9) |
5 (33.3) |
0.6 (0.2, 1.8) |
6 (27.3) |
0.4 (0.2, 1.2) |
7 (58.3) |
1.7 (0.5, 5.3) |
| No |
239 (54.1) |
10 (66.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
16 (72.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
5 (41.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Child’s sex |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Male |
274 (52.1) |
6 (40.0) |
0.6 (0.2, 1.8) |
9 (37.5) |
0.6 (0.2, 1.3) |
8 (61.5) |
1.5 (0.5, 4.6) |
| Female |
252 (47.9) |
9 (60.0) |
1.0 (ref.) |
15 (67.5) |
1.0 (ref.) |
5 (38.5) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Child’s race |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Non-white |
131 (25.0) |
1 (6.7) |
0.2 (0.0,1.6) |
6 (25.0) |
1.0 (0.4, 2.6) |
5 (38.5) |
1.9 (0.6-5.8) |
| “White” |
393 (75.0) |
14 (93.3) |
1.0 (ref.) |
18 (75.0) |
1.0 (ref.) |
8 (61.5) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Child’s sibling has birth defect |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
45 (11.0) |
2 (14.3) |
1.3 (0.3, 6.2) |
6 (27.3) |
3.0 (1.1, 8.2) |
3 (27.3) |
3.0 (0.8, 11.8) |
| No |
364 (89.0) |
12 (85.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
16 (72.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
8 (72.7) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Dad smoked † † |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
273 (52.6) |
6 (40.0) |
0.6 (0.2, 1.7) |
8 (36.4) |
0.5 (0.2, 1.3) |
9 (69.2) |
2.0 (0.6, 6.7) |
| No |
246 (47.4) |
9 (60.0) |
1.0 (ref.) |
14 (63.6) |
1.0 (ref.) |
4 (30.8) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Dad possibly exposed to Agent Orange |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
158 (31.2) |
3 (20.0) |
0.6 (0.2, 2.0) |
6 (26.1) |
0.8 (0.3, 2.0) |
5 (38.5) |
1.4 (0.4, 4.3) |
| No |
348 (68.8) |
12 (80.0) |
1.0 (ref.) |
17 (73.9) |
1.0 (ref.) |
8 (61.5) |
1.0 (ref.) |
| Dad occupationally exposed to solvents § |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yes |
167 (32.5) |
6 (40.0) |
1.4 (0.5-3.9) |
6 (26.1) |
0.7 (0.3-1.9) |
4 (30.8) |
0.9 (0.3-3.0) |
| No | 347 (67.5) | 9 (60.0) | 1.0 (ref.) | 17 (73.9) | 1.0 (ref.) | 9 (69.2) | 1.0 (ref.) |
*one control series for all case groups.
** childhood leukemia and childhood non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
† “Adequate”: prenatal care began during 1st trimester; “Inadequate”: prenatal care began later in pregnancy or no care was received.
† † During the three months before conception.
§ During the six months before conception.