Table 1.

Fin-de-siècle Theories of Core Dysfunction up to Jaspers

Authors	Theoretical Core Dysfunction
Wernicke8–10	Sejunction psychosis (interruptions in association pathways)
Weygandt11	Decay of apperception (Wundt), apperceptive stupefecation (Verblödung)
Sommer12	Slowed ideation, unable to disengage attention, visual fixation
Tschich13, Maselon14, Kraepelin15,16, Ziehen17, Aschaffenberg18	Insufficient attention
Freusberg19, Schüle20	Weakening of consciousness (reduction of force in conscious activities)
Lehmann21	Reduced energy of consciousness
Vogt22	Narrowing of consciousness, captivated by one idea
Pelletier23	Absence of guiding principle or goal
Gross24	Dementia sejunctiva, disintegration of consciousness (Bewusstseinszerfall) with parallel running series of associations
Stransky25,26	Intrapsychic ataxia, functional disharmony between cognitive components, “schism”
Jung27	Dissociation as an abaissement du niveau mental (Janet)
Löwy28	Emptying of intention, reduced goal directedness as core to stupefecation (Verblödungsprozess; Kraepelin, Weygandt)
Bleuler5,6	General loosening of associations with fissure of personality
Berze29,30	Insufficiency of mental activity, hypotonia of conscious mental acts
The critics
Jaspers4,31–35	Nonunderstandability of primary symptoms betray underlying neurobiological process not grasped by one theory
Gruhle36,37	Primary symptoms are independent, cannot be summarized by one catchy or trendy term
Mayer-Gross38,39	Phenomenological method fallible, not absolute; disrupted memory plays a role in modified persistence of delusions in residual state

Note: Reprinted from Mishara and Schwartz⁷ Copyright (2013), with permission from S. Karger AG, Basel (in part based on Berze and Gruhle³⁶, Jung²⁷, and Berze³⁰; see Scharfetter⁴⁰ for theories prior to fin-de-siècle).