Table 2.
Comparison of Risk Factors for the Six Groups
| Risk factor | Resilient groups
|
Nonresilient groups
|
Group differences
|
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extremely resilient | Resilient | New onset | Strong benefit | Mild benefit | Late benefit | All groups | Resilient vs. nonresilient | |
| Predeployment measures | ||||||||
| Mean age (years) | 27.65 | 24.39 | 28.29 | 22.63 | 22.45 | 22.93 | F(5, 360) = 4.99** | t(360) = 1.70 |
| Female (%) | 5.10 | 5.88 | 14.29 | 25.00 | 8.33 | 14.29 | χ2(5, N = 366) = 8.21 | χ2(1, N = 366) = 5.38* |
| Enlisted rank (%) | 86.17 | 92.16 | 78.57 | 87.50 | 100.00 | 92.86 | χ2(5, N = 364) = 6.36 | χ2(1, N = 364) = 0.95 |
| Combat soldiers (%) | 34.65 | 56.86 | 42.86 | 37.50 | 75.00 | 85.71 | χ2(5, N = 365) = 31.82*** | χ2(1, N = 365) = 14.54** |
| Number of earlier missions | 1.19 | 0.54 | 0.54 | 0.29 | 0.54 | 0.46 | F(5, 349) = 2.96* | t(349) = 1.62 |
| Years in military | 7.09 | 3.31 | 9.54 | 3.75 | 2.13 | 2.07 | F(5, 359) = 5.84*** | t(359) = 0.73 |
| PTSD symptoms score | 19.35 | 23.13 | 23.45 | 50.00 | 34.25 | 35.36 | F(5, 360) = 234.65*** | t(360) = 26.53*** |
| Depression score | 3.35 | 5.88 | 7.71 | 20.83 | 12.55 | 13.42 | F(5, 350) = 39.94*** | t(350) = 11.25*** |
| Neuroticism score | 28.55 | 31.08 | 32.71 | 36.57 | 35.65 | 36.08 | F(5, 341) = 14.72*** | t(341) = 6.08*** |
| Earlier-traumas score | 8.59 | 7.78 | 15.71 | 23.25 | 16.00 | 13.50 | F(5, 352) = 9.84*** | t(352) = 6.65*** |
| Low education (%) | 22.13 | 17.65 | 28.57 | 75.00 | 45.83 | 42.85 | χ2(5, N = 364) = 21.11** | χ2(1, N = 364) = 14.80** |
| Earlier emotional problems (%) | 15.35 | 14.00 | 57.14 | 50.00 | 33.33 | 42.85 | χ2(5, N = 364) = 28.59*** | χ2(1, N = 364) = 25.12*** |
| Stressors measured during deployment | ||||||||
| Combat-exposure score | 10.59 | 14.62 | 12.00 | 7.00 | 15.72 | 16.17 | F(5, 288) = 4.00** | t(288) = 0.08 |
| Danger/injury-exposure score | 18.31 | 19.64 | 18.25 | 19.71 | 19.90 | 19.92 | F(5, 301) = 1.26 | t(301) = 0.61 |
| Emotional stress | 1.75 | 2.17 | 2.50 | 2.29 | 1.87 | 2.23 | F(5, 312) = 6.29*** | t(312) = 2.26* |
| Times when life was in danger | 2.96 | 3.45 | 2.58 | 2.29 | 2.74 | 3.38 | F(5, 308) = 0.77 | t(308) = 1.23 |
| Stressors measured 1 to 3 weeks after return from deployment | ||||||||
| Combat-exposure score | 14.88 | 19.95 | 17.56 | 11.00 | 21.64 | 21.64 | F(5, 277) = 3.62** | t(277) = 0.22 |
| Danger/injury-exposure score | 19.87 | 21.24 | 20.30 | 20.71 | 22.25 | 22.92 | F(5, 286) = 1.95 | t(286) = 1.16 |
| Emotional stress | 2.03 | 2.28 | 2.50 | 2.40 | 2.23 | 2.54 | F(5, 298) = 2.76* | t(298) = 1.99* |
| Times when life was in danger | 3.37 | 4.44 | 3.30 | 3.16 | 5.00 | 4.62 | F(5, 300) = 3.52** | t(300) = 0.27 |
| Wounded-injured (%) | 12.92 | 18.60 | 30.00 | 33.33 | 31.82 | 7.69 | χ2(5, N = 303) = 9.33 | χ2(1, N = 303) = 4.28* |
| Killed an enemy (%) | 20.69 | 25.00 | 30.00 | 33.33 | 40.91 | 53.85 | χ2(5, N = 294) = 11.15* | χ2(1, N = 294) = 8.83** |
Note: Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were measured using the PTSD Checklist (Blanchard, Jones-Alezander, Buckley, & Forneris, 1996). Depression was measured using the second edition of the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996). Neuroticism was measured using a scale derived from the NEO Five Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1989). Earlier traumas were measured using the Traumatic Life Event Questionnaire (Kubany et al., 2000). Combat exposure and danger/injury exposure were measured using the Combat Exposure Scale (Keane et al., 1989) and the Danger/Injury Exposure Scale constructed by the Danish military, respectively. Emotional stress was measured on a scale from 1 (never) to 4 (very often). The number of times when life was in danger was measured on a scale from 0 (never) to 6 (more than five times). All t tests are based on contrast analyses.
p < .05.
p < .01.
p < .0001.