TABLE 5.

Effect estimates for changes in biomarkers corresponding to substitution of 1 serving of red meat (total, unprocessed, or processed) with alternative protein foods¹

	C-reactive protein		Ferritin		Hemoglobin A1c		Fasting insulin
	β ± SE	P	β ± SE	P	β ± SE	P	β ± SE	P
Total red meat with
Poultry, fish, legumes, or nuts	−0.106 ± 0.043	0.02	−0.212 ± 0.075	0.007	−0.052 ± 0.015	0.001	−0.119 ± 0.036	0.002
Nuts	−0.117 ± 0.044	0.01	−0.209 ± 0.077	0.01	−0.052 ± 0.016	0.001	−0.141 ± 0.037	0.0003
Legumes	−0.043 ± 0.070	0.33	−0.253 ± 0.126	0.05	−0.055 ± 0.024	0.03	−0.054 ± 0.059	0.25
Fish	−0.052 ± 0.080	0.32	−0.406 ± 0.154	0.01	−0.032 ± 0.027	0.20	−0.026 ± 0.062	0.36
Poultry	0.087 ± 0.144	0.33	0.054 ± 0.260	0.39	−0.042 ± 0.050	0.28	0.087 ± 0.123	0.31
Unprocessed red meat with
Poultry, fish, legumes, or nuts	−0.109 ± 0.057	0.07	−0.299 ± 0.099	0.004	−0.064 ± 0.020	0.002	−0.110 ± 0.046	0.02
Nuts	−0.117 ± 0.058	0.05	−0.298 ± 0.101	0.005	−0.064 ± 0.020	0.003	−0.129 ± 0.047	0.009
Legumes	−0.050 ± 0.080	0.33	−0.354 ± 0.143	0.02	−0.069 ± 0.028	0.02	−0.056 ± 0.065	0.28
Fish	−0.070 ± 0.087	0.29	−0.494 ± 0.165	0.004	−0.049 ± 0.030	0.10	−0.036 ± 0.067	0.35
Poultry	0.104 ± 0.149	0.31	−0.030 ± 0.268	0.40	−0.047 ± 0.052	0.26	0.111 ± 0.126	0.27
Processed red meat with
Poultry, fish, legumes, or nuts	−0.166 ± 0.074	0.03	−0.164 ± 0.141	0.20	−0.061 ± 0.027	0.03	−0.222 ± 0.069	0.002
Nuts	−0.178 ± 0.075	0.02	−0.168 ± 0.142	0.20	−0.062 ± 0.027	0.03	−0.245 ± 0.070	0.0009
Legumes	−0.107 ± 0.091	0.20	−0.215 ± 0.170	0.18	−0.067 ± 0.033	0.049	−0.164 ± 0.082	0.05
Fish	−0.129 ± 0.098	0.17	−0.398 ± 0.191	0.045	−0.051 ± 0.034	0.13	−0.147 ± 0.083	0.08
Poultry	0.040 ± 0.158	0.39	0.138 ± 0.290	0.36	−0.045 ± 0.056	0.29	−0.005 ± 0.139	0.40

¹General linear models were adjusted for covariates, including age at blood draw (continuous), ethnicity (white or nonwhite), fasting status (yes or no), postmenopausal hormone use (yes or no), family history of diabetes (yes or no), history of hypertension (yes or no), history of hypercholesterolemia (yes or no), smoking status (current, former, or never), physical activity (quartiles), and total energy intake (continuous).