First stage regressions using liquor stores, gas stations, and population density as dependent variables
| Variables | No. liquor stores within less than 0.5 km | No. gas stations within less than 0.5 km | Population density in Census Tract |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zoning Ordinances | |||
|
| |||
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Commercial” | 1.43*** (0.086) | 2.74*** (0.16) | 5.08*** (0.31) |
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Industrial” | -0.0063 (0.034) | -0.39*** (0.064) | -2.94*** (0.12) |
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Mixed Use” | -0.075 (0.078) | 1.74*** (0.15) | -0.024 (0.29) |
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Office” | 1.55*** (0.52) | 2.11** (0.97) | 11.1*** (1.84) |
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Institutional” | 0.93*** (0.33) | 1.17* (0.63) | 2.92** (1.17) |
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Unincorporated” | 1.08** (0.50) | 2.28** (0.94) | -7.90*** (1.76) |
| Fraction of Census Tract zoned “Other” | -0.13*** (0.046) | -0.54*** (0.087) | -2.24*** (0.17) |
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| Other exogenous variables | |||
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| |||
| Alcohol availability | |||
|
| |||
| No. bars within 0.5 to 1 km. | 0.0013 (0.0013) | 0.0086*** (0.0025) | 0.0072 (0.0046) |
| No. bars within 1 to 2 km. | 0.0030*** (0.00053) | 0.0065*** (0.0010) | 0.0031* (0.0019) |
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| Income and demographic characteristics | |||
|
| |||
| Age | 0.020* (0.011) | 0.035* (0.020) | 0.032 (0.038) |
| Age2 | -0.00023 (0.00017) | -0.00056* (0.00032) | -0.00052 (0.00061) |
| Female | -0.020 (0.015) | -0.043 (0.028) | -0.13** (0.055) |
| Black | 0.030* (0.017) | 0.42*** (0.033) | 0.35*** (0.064) |
| Married | -0.040** (0.019) | -0.019 (0.035) | -0.018 (0.068) |
| Widowed | -0.0062 (0.11) | 0.076 (0.20) | 0.063 (0.40) |
| Divorced | -0.0040 (0.026) | -0.038 (0.050) | 0.025 (0.096) |
| Separated | 0.011 (0.039) | 0.10 (0.073) | 0.031 (0.14) |
| Years of education | 0.0013 (0.0037) | -0.021*** (0.0070) | -0.034** (0.014) |
| Annual income $16,000-$24,999 | 0.0035 (0.025) | -0.016 (0.048) | 0.013 (0.091) |
| Annual income $25,000-$49,000 | 0.028 (0.022) | -0.047 (0.041) | -0.0085 (0.079) |
| Annual income $50,000-$74,999 | -0.034 (0.028) | -0.11** (0.053) | 0.13 (0.10) |
| Annual income over $75,000 | -0.016 (0.032) | -0.27*** (0.060) | -0.12 (0.12) |
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| Time and city effects | |||
|
| |||
| 1985-6 | 0.33*** (0.039) | 0.059 (0.074) | -0.16 (0.14) |
| 1992-3 | 0.082** (0.034) | 0.36*** (0.063) | -0.81*** (0.12) |
| 1995-6 | 0.079*** (0.030) | -0.018 (0.057) | -0.63*** (0.11) |
| Birmingham | 0.42*** (0.029) | -1.61*** (0.055) | -1.18*** (0.11) |
| Oakland | 0.97*** (0.026) | -0.60*** (0.050) | 1.77*** (0.094) |
| Minneapolis | 0.19*** (0.031) | -1.48*** (0.058) | 0.22** (0.11) |
| Constant | -0.86*** (0.17) | 1.13*** (0.32) | 2.55*** (0.60) |
|
| |||
| Observations | 7,397 | 7,397 | 6,916 |
| R2 | 0.29 | 0.41 | 0.36 |
Standard errors in parentheses
***
p<0.01,
**
p<0.05,
*
p<0.1