Table 1.
Engine Performance for WiDE under various testing conditions.
| Reference | Engine type and loading conditions | % of water | Surfactant used | Amount of surfactant used | % increase in specific fuel consumption | % increase of torque | % increase of Brake thermal efficiency | % reduction NOx | % reduction of PM | % reduction of HC and CO |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [7] | Renault F8Q turbo charged intercooler IDI,5 different steady state operating conditions | 10 | Polyethylenglycole monooleate and sorbitol sesquioleate | NA | Reduced | Reduced | Reduced | HC reduced | ||
| [8] | 4s, 4c, di industrial diesel engine | NA | NA | NA | 22–26% compared with certified diesel fuel (CDF) | NA | Slightly Higher than CDF | 29–37% reduced | Not measured | 60–90% reduced HC |
| [11] | 2.5 L DI turbo-charge Toyota diesel engine, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% load with 800–3600 rpm in steps of 400 rpm | 10% water | 10% biodegradable surfactant | 10% by volume | Increased in all test conditions | NA | Increased with speed | Reduced | NA | Higher at low load and decreasing with increasing speed and load |
| [32] | FORD XLD 418, 1000–5000 rpm | 5, 10 and 15 | Conventional-sorbitan monooleate (SM) and gemini surfactant | 0.5% for SM 0.4% for gemini |
15% water has highest and decreases with decrease in water content | Less with all emulsions compared to diesel 5% water produced highest torque | NA | Reduced | Reduced | Lowest with 15% water |
| [33] | 4 cylinder, DI water cooled1450cc, 1000–3000 RPM |
5–30% insteps of 5 | Polysorbate-20 | 2% by volume | Increased | At 5% water torque was max., and declining with increase of water content | For 5% water = 35% | NO and NOx reduced with increase in water | Reduced | HC and CO2 increased with increases in water content |
| [41] | 4C,4S, water cooled DI industrial HINO diesel engine, 200 Nm and 2200 rpm | 13 | NA | 2% (surfactants and cetane improver) | Increase of 26% | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA |
| [44] | Single cylinder, 4S, DI diesel engine with injection pressure of 200 bar, constant speed 1500 rpm | 10% and 20% | Sodium laurel sulphate | 0.1% for 1000 mL emulsion | Break BFC decreases with all load | NA | Increase with increased water content | Reduced 10% for 10% water and 25% for 20% water | NA | Decreasing with all loading conditions |
| [45] | 4 cylinder, HSDI diesel engine at 1480, 2035, 1480, 2065, and 1460 rpm | 20 | Span 80 and Tween 85 | 1.3% of Span 80 and 0.7% of Tween 85 | BSFC increased with increased EGR rate | NA | NA | Reduced between 30–50% at low injection pressure and increased up to 24% at higher injection pressure | 94% reduced at low loads | |
| [46] | 4S, air cooled overhead valve, constant speed of 1500 rpm at different outputs. | 0.4 : 1 ratio | Surfactant used unknown, with HLB 7 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NOx is reduced | NA | NA |
| [47] | Single cylinder DI diesel engine, 1200–3300 rpm | 0–20% in steps of 5% | Span 80 and Tween 80 | 2% by volume of mixture | Decreased with increasing water content | NA | Appr-3.5% for 20% water | NA | NA | NA |
| [48] | 6 cylinder, TCI diesel engine (High way Bus Engine), 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of full power at 1200 rpm and 2000 rpm | 15% analysis considered for 15% water content | NA (used along with cetane improver) |
NA | at 25% and 50% load slightly higher than diesel. At 75% BSFC is better than diesel |
Decreased 20% and 9% at 1200 rpm and 2000 rpm when compared with diesel | NA | Reduced up to 11.6% | Reduced up to 34.5% | CO and HC increased up to 12.4% and 59.4% respectively |
| [49] | 4 cylinder air-cooled DI truck diesel engine | 0, 10, 15 | (Span 85) Quantity NA |
NA | NA | NA | NA | 20 for 10% water 18 for 15% water |
NA | THC reduced about 52% for 10% water 33% for 15% water |
| [50] | 4 cylinder, air cooled, 1700 rpm and 2100 rpm | 10 and 15% | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Reduction of 20% and 18% for 10% water and 15% water | NA | THC reduced 52% and 33% for 10% water and 15% water |
| [51] | 6 cylinder, Caterpillar 3176 turbocharged engine, steady state operation | 20% by mass | Purinox (commercial DE fuel) |
NA | 0.7% reduced | NA | NA | 19% reduced | 16% reduced | HC and CO emissions increased by 28% and 42% |
| [52] | Renault VI 620–45 (Euro 1) engine testing | 13% by weight | NA | 2-3% | Reduced 1–4% | NA | NA | Appr. 30% with reduction of 80% black smoke | Up to 50% | 12% reduced HC |
| [53] | 2.5L, 4cylinder.D.I. Ford engine, different load with 2500 rpm | 20% by vol. | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Decrease Up to 60% with increased smoke |
NA | HC and CO increased relatively low level |